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THE 


PRINCIPLES 


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ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


BY 


A.    S.    WORRELL,    A.M 


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UU  LI  SHED    BY    GRAVES,    MARKS    &    CO., 

SOUTH-WESTEKN   PUBLlSniNO    HOl'SE. 

18Q1, 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  18C1,  by 

A.  S.   WORRELL, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  Confederate  States  for  the 

District  of  Georgia. 


f 


PREFACE. 


The  only  apologies  offered  for  presenting  a  new  Grammar 
to  the  public  arc — first,  that  ecery  independent  nation  must 
fnrnish  its  own  literature;  and  second,  that  none  of  the 
works  hitherto  presented  to  the  public  are  perfect.  The  South- 
erners, in  their  previous  history,  have  been  content  to  have 
their  books  furnished  them  by  the  North.  This  not  only 
discouraged  Southern  authorship) ,  and  cramped  genius,  but 
it  allowed  the  North  the  chief  means  of  shaping  natio7ial 
bias — THE  Press.  But  now  that  the  Southern  people  have 
separated  from  the  North,  and  established  an  independent 
nationality y  she  will,  of  course,  hail  with  pleasure  every 
industrious  effort  of  '■^her  own  sons"  to  free  her  from  Aboli- 
tion dependencies. 

The  author  does  not  claim  absolute  perfection  in  the  pre- 
sent work ;  but  he  does  claim  that,  while  he  has  embodied  in 
this  work  the  best  that  he  could  obtain  from  other  sources, 
he  has  presented,  in  a  elan-er,  fuller  light,  the  "science  of 
tlie  English  language,"  than  any  other  one  author  of  his 
acquaintance. 

Like  the  "  parts  of  speech,"  the  "  rules  of  Syntax"  have 
been  variously  extended  or  curtailed,  as  if  these  important 
jirinciples  depended  merely  on  "arbitrary  taste;"  yet  the 
former  are  as  clearly  defined  in  their  number  as  the  latter. 
As  the  purpose  for  which  language  is  used  determines  the 
number  of  "  the  parts  of  speech,"  so  the  number  of  "  gram- 
matical rules"  must  be  determined  by  the  number  and  kind 
of  grammatical  relations  arising  from  the  various  combina- 
tions of  words. 


^f^i^ 


ly  PREFACE. 

The  number  of  rules  in  the  English  language  may  properly 
be  limited  to  XV.  This  number  has  been  increased  by  one, 
owing  to  the  obscurity  which  has  enveloped  the  "  infinitive 
mood/'  in  order  to  remove  "  the  mist." 

Few  grammarians  have  condancndcd  to  inform  us  what 
part  of  speech  "to"  (preceding  the  infinitive)  is.  Some  call 
it  "the  sign  of  the  infinitive;"  otiiers,  an  "auxiliary"  to  the 
infinitive;  many  overlook  it  entirely;  while  a  /e«r,  taking  a 
correct  view  of  it  \n  j^mrt,  fall  into  "  fatal  blunders."  Those 
who  regard  "to"  as  a  preposition,  generally  agree  that  it 
may  sometimes  have  a  (grammatical)  subject  in  the  objective 
case ;  but  this  cannot  be,  since  one  word  can  have  but  one 
grammatical  government. 

If  all  the  slight  deviations  from  rules,  and  all  cautions 
against  had  g?-ammar,  should  be  dignified  with  the  title  of 
rules,  then  there  is  no  end  to  rules.  The  deviations  from 
rules  are  stated  in  the  notes  immediately  following  the  rules 
themselves;  so  that  the  pupil  can  easily  obtain  a  correct 
scope  of  the  syntax  of  the  language.  If  the  pupil  will  study 
these  rules  and  notes  carefully,  he  will  find  little  to  trouble 
him  in  the  most  difliicult  English  works. 

Appended  to  the  Syntax  will  be  found  a  brief  summary  of 
"  English  Idioms,"  which  constitute  no  little  difficulty  in  the 
way  of  learning  the  English  language;  also,  a  condensed 
chapter  on  the  subject  of  "  English  Analysis,"  which,  if 
properly  studied,  will  give  a  correct  outline  of  this  important 
subject.  There  are  many  other  improvements  which,  for 
want  of  space,  cannot  be  specified  now. 

There  are  three  considerations  which  should  commend  this 

work  to  Southern  patronage:    1.  The  author  was  horn  and 

educated  in  the  South:    2.   The  work  has  been  edited  and 

jmhlishcd  in  the  South:    3.  The  work  itself:  "let  it  stand 

or  fall  on  its  own  merits." 

A.  S.  WORRKLIi. 


CONTENTS. 


FAQS 

DEFINITIONS  AND  DIVISIONS 7 

ORTHOGRAPHY 7 

Letters 8 

Vowels 9 

Consonants 10 

Diphthongs 11 

Triphtliongs 11 

Syllables 12 

Words 12 

Syllabication 13 

Spelling 14 

ETYMOLOGY 10 

Nouns 18 

Gender 21 

Number 23 

Person , 27 

Case 28 

Pronouns 32 

Verbs 39 

Participles 44 

Classes  of  Verbs 4G 

Forms  of  the  Verb 52 

Conjugation  54 

Adjectives 64 

Comparison  of 66 

Adverbs 70 

Comparison  of 71 

Irregular  Adverbs 72 

Prepositions 73 

Conjunctives 75 

Interjections 77 


VI  CONTENTS. 

SYNTAX 79 

Sentences 79 

Subject   80 

Tredicate 80 

Modification  of  Subject  and  Predicate ;.  81 

Different  Forms  of  Sentences 82 

Division  of  Sentences 82 

SYNTAX— Rule  1 84 

"  "      II 85 

."  ««      III 80 

*«  "      IV 87 

*t  ««     V 88 

*<  "     VI 90 

«  "     VII 91 

«  "     VIII 93 

"  "      IX 95 

"  "      X 97 

"  ♦•      XI 99 

"  *«      XII 103 

"  "     XIII 104 

«*  "     XIV 106 

"  «'     XV 108 

««  «'     XVI 109 

REMARKS  ON  MOODS  AND  TENSES 110 

WORDS  USED  AS  DIFFERENT  PARTS  OF  SPEECH Ill 

IDIOMS 114 

Idiomatic  Sentences 116 

CHAPTER  ON  ANALYSIS 118 

ARRANGEMENT 125 

PUNCTUATION 127 

ACCENT 139 

EMPHASIS 140 

PROSODY 141 

FIGURES  OF  SPEECH 150 

CAPITAL  LETTERS 153 

PROMISCUOUS  EXERCISES 154 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


LESSON    I. 

Question.  What  is  English  Grammar? 

Answer.  It  is  the  science  that  teaches  the  principles  of 
the  English  language. 

Q.  What  is  language  ? 

A.  It  is  the  medium  through  which  we  communicate 
thoughts. 

Q.  How  many  kinds  of  language  do  we  use  ? 

A.  Three  :  natural,  written,  and  spoken. 

Q.  What  is  natural  language  ? 

A.  It  is  the  use  of  signs  to  communicate  thoughts. 

Q.  What  is  spoken  language  ? 

A.  It  is  communicating  thoughts  vocally,  or  by  means  of 
the  voice. 

Q.  W^hat  is  written  language  ? 

A.  It  is  a  way  of  communicating  thoughts  by  the  use  of 
certain  characters  used  to  represent  the  elementary  sounds 
of  the  human  voice. 

Q.  What  are  elementary  sounds? 

A.  The  primary  or  simple  sounds  of  the  human  voice  used 
in  speaking. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. — LETTERS. — VOWELS. 
Q.  What  is  orthography  ? 

A.  It  is  that  part  of  grammar  which  treats  of  letters,  syl- 
lables, words,  and  spelling. 


8  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Q.  What  is  a  letter  ? 

A.  A  character  representing  an  elementary  sound  of  the 
human  voice. 

Q.  How  many  letters  arc  there  iu  the  English  language  ? 
A.  Twenty-six. 
Q.  Into  what  arc  letters  divided? 
A.  Into  vowels  and  consonants. 
Q.  "What  is  a  vowel  ? 

A.  It  is  a  letter  which  represents  a  free,  uninterrupted 
sound  of  the  human  voice. 
Q.  Will  you  name  the  vowels  ? 

A.  They  are  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  and  w  and   ij  not  beginning  a 
syllable. 

Q.  Have  vowels  but  one  sound  ? 

A.  No;  some  of  them  have  several. 

Q.  How  many  sounds  has  a? 

A.   Four. 

Q.  What  are  they  ? 

A.  The  first  sound  of  a  is  like  a  in  ate. 

The  second  sound  of  a  is  like  a  in  art. 

The  third  sound  of  a  is  like  a  in  all. 

The  fourth  sound  of  a  is  like  a  in  cat. 
Q.  How  many  sounds  has  et 
A.  Two. 
Q.  What  are  they  ? 
A.  The  first  sound  of  e  is  like  e  in  me. 

The  second  sound  of  c  is  like  c  in  met. 
Q.  How  many  sounds  has  i? 
A.  Three. 
Q.  What  arc  they  ? 
A.  The  first  sound  of  i  is  like  i  in  mine. 

The  second  sound  of  i  is  like  i  in  pin. 

The  third  sound  of  /  is  like  i  in  machine. 
Q.  How  many  sounds  has  o  ? 
A.  Three. 


LETTERS. — CONSONANTS. — CLASSES  OF  CONSONANTS.   9 

Q.  "What  are  they  ? 

A.  The  first  sound  of  o  is  like  o  in  old. 
The  second  sound  of  o  is  like  o  in  move. 
The  third  sound  of  o  is  like  o  in  nod. 

Q.  How  many  sounds  has  ti  ? 

A.  Three. 

Q.  What  are  they  ? 

A.  The  first  sound  of  u  is  like  u  in  use. 
The  second  sound  of  w  is  like  u  in  sup. 
The  third  sound  of  u  is  like  u  in  full. 

Q.  IIow  many  sounds  has  y,  when  used  as  a  vowel,  and  what  arc 
they  ? 

A.  Two.  The  first  is  like  i  in  mine :  as  dr?/,  pronounced 
as  if  it  were  dri. 

The  second  is  like  i  in  jji»,  as  petti/. 

Q.  How  many  sounds  has  w,  when  used  as  a  vowel,  and  what  are 
they  ? 

A.  Two.  First,  when  it  is  the  last  letter  of  a  syllable,  it 
has  very  nearly  the  sound  of  it,  as  in  saw,  pronounced  as  if 
it  were  sau. 

In  the  second  it  has  the  sound  of  oo. 

Q.  Is  there  any  reason  for  the  above  order,  "first,"  "second," 
etc.? 

A.  None,  except  for  convenience. 

Q.  Upon  what  does  the  sound  of  any  particular  vowel  depend  ? 

A.  Partly  upon  the  consonants  with  which  it  is  connected, 
and  partly  upon  its  length. 


LESSON     II. 

LETTERS. — CONSONANTS. — CLASSES  OF  CONSONANTS. 

Q.  Wlifit  is  a  consonant? 

A.   It  is  a  letter  which  cannot   be  sounded   alone,  but  is 
always  used  in  connoofion  with  n  vowel. 


10  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Q.   AVill  you  name  (he  consonants? 

A.  They  are  h,  r,  d,  /,  g,  h,  j\  k,  I,  wi,  »,  p,  q,  r,  s,  t,  v, 
Xj  z,  and  w  and  y  beginning  a  syllable. 

Q.  What  sounfls  have  consonants  ? 

A.  They  have  no  sounds  which  can  be  fully  represented 
on  paper,  but  if  special  attention  be  given  to  the  following 
table,  some  idea  of  their  sounds  may  be  obtained.     Thus  : 

b  in  bag — b-ag,  n  in  never — n-cvcr, 

c  in  cat — cat,  p  in  pat — p-at, 

(1  in  dog — d-og,  q  in  quest — q-uest, 

f  in  fix — f-ix,  r  iji  rate — r-atc, 

g  in  go — g-o,  t  in  time — t-imc, 

h  in  hat — h-at,  v  in  van — v-nn, 

j  in  June — j-une,  w  in  will — w-ill, 

k  in  kate — k-ate,  x  in  fix — fi-x, 

1  in  late — 1-ate,  y  in  your — y-our, 

m  in  mate — m-ate,  z  in  zinc — zinc. 

Q.   How  are  consonants  divided  ? 

A.  Into  semi-voicels  and  mutes, 

Q.  What  is  a  semi-vowel? 

A.  It  is  a  consonant  which  can  be  imperfectly  sounded 
without  the  aid  of  a  vowel.  _ 

Q.  What  arc  the  semi-vowels  ? 

A.  They  are  /,  7i,  j,  I,  m,  n,  r,  s,  v,  w,  x,  i/,  z,  and  c  and 
f/  soft. 

Q.   What  are  the  semi-vowels  /,  ?n,  n,  and  r  called  ? 

A.  Liquids,  on  account  of  the  fluency  of  their  sounds. 

Q.  What  is  a  mute? 

A.  A  mute  is  a  consonant  which  cannot  be  sounded  by 
itself. 

Q.  Will  you  name  the  mutes  ? 

A.   They  are  b,  d,  k,  p,  q,  t,  and  c  and  g  hard. 

Q.  How  many  of  these  sound  alike  ? 

A.  Three  :  k,  q,  and  c,  hard. 


DIPHTHONGS. — TRIPHTHONaS.  11 

Q.  What  is  meant  by  c  and  g  being  hard  or  tofi  ? 

A.  C  is  hard  when  it  has  the  sound  of  k,  as  in  catch,  and 
soft  when  it  has  the  sound  of  s,  as  in  city.  G  is  hard  when 
it  is  sounded  as  in  gun  ;  it  is  soft  when  it  has  the  sound  of 
j,  as  in  gentle. 

EXERCISE. 

Give  the  sound  of  each  letter  in  the  following  words: 
Above,  around,  afloat,  against,  across,  cat,  dog,  fog,  good, 
hood,  ink,  jack,  lack,  rack,  saque,  take,  urchin,  vile,  winter, 
axe,  yes,  dizzy,  rainy,  snowy,  one,  two,  chest,  sheets,  vowel, 
horse,  city,  cow,  calf,  wood. 


LESSON    III. 

DIPHTHONGS. — TRIPHTHONGS. 

Q.  What  is  a  diphthong? 

A.  It  is  the  union  of  two  vowels  in  one  sound,  as  oii  in 
our,  ea  in  fear. 

Q.   How  many  kinds  of  diphthongs  are  there  ? 

A.  Two  :  proper  and  imjyroper. 

Q.  What  is  a  proper  diphthong? 

A.  One  in  which  both  of  the  vowels  are  sounded,  as  ou  in 
flour. 

Q.  What  is  an  improper  diphthong? 

A.  One  in  which  but  one  of  the  vowels  is  sounded,  as  ca 
in  heat. 

Q.   What  is  a  triphthong? 

A.  The  union  of  three  vowels  in  one  syllabic,  as  can  in 
beauty. 

Q.  How  many  kinds  of  triphthongs  are  there? 

A.  Two  :  proper  and  improper. 


12  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Q.  "What  is  a  proper  triphthong? 

A.  One  in  which  all  of  the  vowels  are  sounded,  as  iioy  in 
huoy. 

Q.  What  is  an  improper  triphthong? 

A.  One  in  which  all  of  the  vowels  are  not  sounded,  as 
eau  in  heaiiteous. 

EXERCISE. 

Name  the  diphthongs,  iriphthonffs,  and  vowels  in  the  following  words: 
Oil,  owl,  tow,  anxious,  anxiety,  foil,  mould,  foolishness, 

sound,  spool,  young,  buoyant,  liquid,  quest,  guest,  hay,  maid, 

rogue,  waist,  buy,  rye,  vie,  eyeing. 


LESSON     IV. 

SYLLABLES. — WORDS. — SYLLABIFICATION. 

Q.  What  is  a  syllable  ? 

A.  It  is  a  letter  or  a  combination  of  letters  uttered  by  a 
single  impulse  of  the  voice ;  thus  :  in  ti(/er,  ti  constitutes  one 
syllable,  and  ger  another. 

Q.  What  do  syllables  form  ? 

A.  Every  syllable  forms  either  a  word  or  part  of  a  word. 

Q.  What  is  a  word  ? 

A.  A  syllable  or  a  combination  of  syllables,  used  as  the 
sign  of  an  idea. 

Note. — All  words  do  not  convey  definite  ideas,  as  a,  the,  any. 

Q.  What  are  the  names  of  words  according  to  the  number  of  sylla- 
bles they  contain  ? 

A.  A  word  of  one  syllable  is  called  a  monosi/Ilahle ;  of 
two,  a  d iasi/Uahle ;  of  three,  a  trisi/llahlc ;  of  four  or  more, 
a  'poli/ syllable. 


SYLLABLES. — WORDS. — SYLLABIFICATION.  13 

Q.  What  is  a  primitive  word  ? 

A.  One  that  is  not  derived  from  another  word  in  the  same 
language,  as  dove,  hoy,  man. 

Q.  What  is  a  derivative  word  ? 

A.  One  that  is  derived  from  another  word  in  the  same 
language,  as  dovelet,  boyish,  manly,  from  dove,  hoy, 
man. 

Q.  What  is  a  compound  word  ? 

A.  One  which  is  composed  of  two  or  more  words,  as 
scliool-teaclier,  love-feast,  nevertheless. 

Q.  What  is  a  simple  word  ? 

A.  One  which  is  not  compounded,  as  school,  teacher,  never, 
the,  less,  love,  feast. 

Q.  In  dividing  words  into  syllables,  are  there  any  rules  to  guide 
us? 

A.  We  are  directed  principally  by  the  ear,  but  the  follow- 
ing rules  may  be  observed,  when  they  are  applicable : 

RULES. 

I.  If  two  vowels,  not  forming  a  diphthong,  come  together, 
they  must  be  separated  in  dividing  the  syllables,  as  a-e-ri- 
ans. 

II.  Consonants  are  usually  joined  with  the  vowels,  diph- 
thongs, or  triphthongs  which  they  modify  in  utterance,  as 
ad-vo-lu'twn. 

III.  Grammatical  and  derivative  endings  are  generally 
separated  from  the  primitive  words  to  which  they  are  joined, 
as  harm-less,  man-ly,  exectit-ed. 

IV.  Prefixes  usually  form  separate  syllables,  as  dis-oxcn, 
up-lift.  When  the  meaning  of  the  prefix  is  disregarded,  it 
may  not  form  a  syllable,  as  in  rec-reate,  composed  of  re  and 
create. 

V.  Compound  words  must  first  be  divided  into  the  words 
which  compose  them  -,  then  these  words  may  be  divided  ac- 
cording to  the  usual  rules. 


14  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


LESSON     V. 

SPELLIxNG. 

Q.  What,  is  spelling  ? 

A.  It  is  naming  the  letters  of  a  word  in  order,  dividing  it 
into  its  proper  syllables,  and  pronouncing  it  correctly;  or  it 
is  writing  a  word  correctly. 

Q.  How  is  the  art  of  spelling  learned  ? 

A.  From  the  spelling-book  and  dictionary,  and  by  observa- 
tion and  reading. 

Q.  What  are  the  rules  for  spelling? 

A.  The  following,  though  they  do  not  embrace  all,  are  very 
important: 

RULES. 

I.  Monosyllables  ending  in  /,  ?,  or  s,  preceded  by  a  single 
vowel,  double  /,  I,  or  s,  as  f/lass,  cuff,  pill. 

Exception  1.  Clef,  if,  and  of  have  but  one  f. 
Ex.  2.  Bui,  nul,  sal,  sol,  have  but  one  L 
Ex.  3.  As,  has,  gas,  was,  is,  his,  this,  us,  thus,  pus,  yes 
have  but  one  s. 

II.  Words  ending  in  any  consonants  except  /,  l,  or  s,  do 
not  double  the  final  letter,  as  far,  box,  hat. 

Ex.  1.  Except  all,  ehb,  egg,  add,  odd,  inn,  err,  hurr,  jmrr, 
yarr,  hutt,  buzz,  fuzz. 

III.  Monosyllables  and  words  accented  on  the  last  syllable, 
ending  in  a  single  consonant  preceded  by  a  single  vowel,  or 
a  vowel  after  qu,  double  the  final  consonant  before  an  addi- 
tional syllable  beginning  with  a  vowel,  as  drop,  dropped,  quit, 
quitting. 

IV.  Double  /  usually  becomes  single  before  an  additional 


SPELLING.  15 

syllabic  beginning  with  a  consonant,  as  willy  wilful^  skill, 
skilful. 

V.  Words  ending  in  any  other  double  consonant  retain  it 
double  before  the  terminations  fid,  hj,  7iess,  and  less,  as  stif, 
stiffness. 

\I.  Words  ending  in  y,  preceded  by  a  consonant,  change 
7/  into  I  before  an  additional  syllable,  aa  tocari/,  wcariedy  ^rcUif, 
prettier. 

Ex.  1.  Before  ing,  y  is  retained,  to  prevent  doubling  z,  as 
marry y  marrying. 

VII.  Silent  c  is  generally  omitted  before  an  additional 
syllable  beginning  with  a  vowel,  as  have,  having,  tune, 
tunable. 

Ex.  1.  Words  ending  in  ce  or  ge  retain  the  e  before  the 
terminations  able  and  ous,  as  peace,  peaceable,  courage, 
courageous. 

Ex.  2.  Words  ending  in  oe  retain  the  final  e,  as  hoe,  hoe- 
ing. 

Ex.  3.  To  prevent  ambiguity,  the  word  dye,  and  some 
others,  retain  the  c  before  ing,  as  eye,  eyeing. 

VIII.  Most  verbs  ending  in  I,  though  accented  on  the  last 
syllable,  do  not  double  the  I  on  receiving  a  syllable  beginning 
with  a  vowel ;   as  reveal,  revealed. 

IX.  Compound  words,  formed  by  prefixing  a  word  or  a 
syllable  to  a  monosyllable  ending  in  all,  retain  the  double  II, 
as  recall,  befall. 

Ex.  1.  Withal,  therewithal,  and  wherewithal. 

In  words  ending  in  eive  and  ieve,  e  precedes  i  when  c  pre- 
cedes ;  otherwise  i  precedes  e. 

EXERCISE. 

Correct  the  spelling  in  the  following  sentences  according  to  the  preced- 
ing rules,  when  aj^plicable ;  othencise,  consult  the  dictionary. 

Itt  iss  harde  to  dye.     Can  you   spel  beleive  and  recieve  f 


IG  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Thee  prettyest  girls  stayed  til  the  uglycst  won  had  gou.  Be 
carcfull  and  allways  fulfil  your  premisses.  Spyes  are  hap- 
pycr  than  theives.  Thee  ladyes  are  writeing  letters.  Your 
welcum  leter  was  duely  reccaved.  A  dutyful  boy  wil  bee 
loved  by  awl.  Animosity  is  allways  blameablo.  Man  ought 
to  make  a  propper  use  off  the  tallents  commited  two  him. 
Liveing  economichally  is  beter  than  liveing  extravagantly. 
Vicces  two  often  are  called  follys.  A  great  mysterry  has  bin 
revealled  too  him ;  therefour  he  thinks  sum  grate  evil  awatcs 
him.  He  has  not  wherewithal!  to  buy  bred.  A  slaveish 
man  sincerely  pleases  himself. 


LESSON     VI. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

Q.  What  is  Etymology? 

A.  It  is  that  part  of  grammar  that  treats  of  the  classifica- 
tion of  words  and  their  modifications. 

Q.  Into  how  many  classes  are  words  divided? 

A.   Eight. 

Q.  What  name  is  given  to  these  classes  ? 

A.  Parts  of  Speech. 

Q.  What  particular  names  do  they  have  ? 

A.  Noun,  Verb,  Adjective,  Pronoun,  Adverb,  Preposition, 
Conjunctive,  and  Interjection. 

Q.  Why  are  there  not  more  parts  of  speech  ? 

A.  Because  words  are  used  only  for  eight  diflferent  pur- 
poses. 

Q.  Do  all  languages  liavc  the  same  number  of  parts  of  speech  ? 

A.  All  languages  which  have  attained  to  something  like 
perfection  have  the  same  number,  though  all  grammarians  do 
not  think  so.     It  is  the  purpose  for  which  language  is  used 


ETYMOLOGY.  IT 

that  determines  the  number  of  classes,  and  not  the  classifica- 
tions made  by  men. 

Q.  What  reason  can  you  give  for  tlie  names  of  the  several  classes  ? 

A.  1.  The  word  noun  means  name  ;  hence  a  word  which 
is  the  name  of  any  thing,  is  properly  called  a  noun. 

Note. — Be  careful  to  observe  that  the  namey  and  not  the  person  or 
thing  named,  is  a  noun. 

2.  Verb  means  icord ;  and  since  the  words  which  declare 
or  ajfirm  something  of  a  noun  are  the  principal  or  most  im- 
portant words,  they  are  called  verhs. 

3.  Adjective  means  joined  or  added  to  ;  hence  the  class  of 
words  that  are  always  joined  or  added  to  another  class — viz., 
to  nouns  or  pronouns — are  called  adjectives. 

4.  Pronoun  moans  for  or  instead  of  a  noun  ;  and  as  there 
is  a  class  of  words  which  are  used  instead  of  nouns,  they  arc 
called  pronoims. 

5.  Adverb  means  joined  to  a  verb.  The  words  called 
adverbs  are  joined  chiefiij  to  verbs  to  modify  their  meaning, 
and  hence  they  are  called  adverbs. 

6.  Preposition  means  placed  before  ;  and  because  this  class 
of  words  is  geiieraWy  placed  before  the  latter  of  two  words 
which  it  connects,  it  receives  the  name  p;v'j;osi7/o«. 

7.  Conjunctive  means  uniting  ov  joining  to(jetlier ;  hence 
the  class  of  words  used  to  iinite  or  join  together  are  called 
conjunctives. 

8.  Interjection  signifies  thrown  between ;  hence  the  class 
of  words  thrown  in  between  other  words  in  a  sentence  or 
composition,  having  no  grammatical  connection  with  these 
words,  are  called  interjections. 


18  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


LESSON    VII. 

NOUNS. 

Q.  What  is  a  noun? 

A.  The  name  of  an  object — any  thing  which  we  can  sec, 
hear,  feel,  taste,  smell,  or  think  of;  as  man,  horse,  hook,  ac- 
tion, virtue. 

Q.  Is  any  object  a  noun  ? 

A.  No;  but  the  names  of  all  objects  are  nouns;  thus  the 
object  which  we  call  chair  is  not  a  noun;  but  its  name — 
chair — IS  a  noun. 

Q.  Into  how  many  classes  are  nouns  divided  ? 

A.  Two  :  Proper  and  Common. 

Q.  What  is  a  proper  noun  ? 

A.  A  proper  noun  is  the  name  of  an  individual  object,  a 
particular  people,  or  group,  as  John,  Boston,  the  Greeks,  the 
Alps. 

Q.  What  is  a  common  noun? 

A.  It  is  a  name  that  is  applicable  to  a  whole  class  of  ob- 
jects. 

Note. — The  terra  man  is  applicable  to  the  entire  race  of  men; 
common  nouns,  therefore,  serve  to  distinguish  the  classes  of  objects. 

Q.  Do  proper  nouns  ever  become  common? 

A.  They  do,  when  the  word  the  is  placed  before  them ;  as, 
"He  is  the  Cicero  of  his  age." 

Q.  When  do  common  nouns  become  proper  ? 

A.  When  the  noun  is  addressed  as  if  it  were  a  living  being ; 
as,  "0  Libert}/  !  thy  cause  has  few  friends." 

Q.  What  particular  classes  of  nouns  are  included  under  common 
nouns? 

A.  1.  Collective  nouns,  or  such  as  signify  two  or  more  in 
a  single  word ;  as  assembly,  army,  company,  pair. 


GENDER.  19 

2.  Abstract  nouns,  or  names  of  qualities ;  as  goodness,  vir- 
tue, hash/ulncss. 

3.  Verbal  nouns,  or  the  names  of  actions;  as  running, 
loalking,  worJcing. 

EXERCISE. 

roint  out  the  nouns  in  the  following  words,  and  tell  whether  they  are 
proper  or  common,  collective,  abstract,  or  verbal,  and  why. 

"William  went  home  from  the  army.  James's  horse  ran  to 
town  with  him.  The  cow  kicked  the  good  dog.  A  cat 
irightened  the  mule.  Fish  are  found  in  the  Tennessee  River. 
Columbia  and  Washington  are  the  names  of  cities.  The 
Amazon  is  a  very  large  river.  A  boy  is  not  a  match  for  a 
goat.  A  large  flock  of  geese.  A  good  people.  Goodness 
and  kindness  are  sisters.  Books  and  churches  enlighten  na- 
tions. The  utility  of  running.  The  virtue  of  exercising 
pity.  Bashfulness  is  not  modesty.  The  forests  of  America 
are  beautiful.     My  name  is  George  Jones. 


LESSON     VIII. 

GENDER. 
Q.  What  is  gender? 

A.  Gender  is  the  distinction  of  nouns  with  regard  to  sex. 
Q.  How  many  genders  are  there  ? 
A.  Two  :  the  masculine  and  the  feminine. 
Q.  What  does  the  masculine  gender  denote  ? 
A.  The  male  sex,  as  boi/,  man,  father. 
Q.  What  does  the  feminine  gender  denote? 
A.  The  female  sex,  as  woman,  sister. 


to  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Q.  Wlicn  su.ch  nouns  tiB parent,  deer,  and  all  those  whose  gender 
cannot  be  determined  are  found,  what  gender  shall  we  give  tliem  ? 

A.  Since  vrc  do  not  know  what  their  sex  is,  we  should  say 
that  their  gender  is  unknown. 

Q.  Can  the  gender  of  such  nouns  ever  be  determined  ? 

A.  Yes ;  and  when  this  is  the  case,  we  should  give  them 
their  proper  gender. 

Q.  Why  may  not  such  nouns  be  said  to  be  of  the  "  common  gender  ?^^ 

A.  Because  there  is  no  such  gender.  [When  we  say  a 
noun  is  of  the  "  common  gender/*  we  seem  to  give  it  some 
positive  element ;  but  we  cannot  do  this  unless  we  have  some- 
thing to  give.  If  we  do  not  know  a  thing,  it  cannot  be  a 
fault  in  such  cases  to  state  it.] 

Q.  Do  all  nouns  have  gender? 

A.  No;  those  without  life,  or  inanimate  objects,  have  no 
sex,  and  of  course  can  have  no  gender. 

Q.  Should  we  give  any  gender  ? 

A.  No;  because  they  have  none. 

Q.   How  should  we  treat  nouns  that  have  no  gender  ? 

A.  We  should  either  not  speak  of  their  gender,  or  say 
"  without  gender."  [Not  to  speak  of  gender  would  be  more 
natural.] 

Q.  Do  nouns  without  gender  ever  have  gender  attributed  to  them? 

A.  They  do,  when  we  speak  of  them  as  living  beings ;  as, 
The  ship,  she  is  sailing ;  The  sun,  he  is  rising ;  The  moon, 
she  is  shining. 

EXERCISE. 

Tell  the  gender  of  the  folloxoing  nouns,  that  have  any  ;  mention  those 
whose  gender  is  not  known,  aud  those  that  have  none. 

George,  Mary,  man,  river,  potato,  Susan,  boy,  field,  Bos- 
ton, Thomas,  cat,  garden,  Selraa,  Fannie,  tree,  friend,  Rufus, 
bird,  cousin,  apple,  fish,  John,  Ohio,  pig,  Asia,  Columbus, 
virtue,  meanness,  afiability,  moderation,  Atlanta,  Alabama, 
running,  leaping,  singing,  happiness,  truth,  girl. 


WAYS   OP   DISTINGUISHING    SEX. 


21 


LESSON     IX. 

WAYS    OF    DISTINGUISHING    SEX. 

Q.  How  many  ways  are  there  of  distinguishing  sex  ? 

A.  Three. 

1.  By  diflferent  words;  as, 


Male. 

Female. 

Male. 

Female. 

Bachelor 

Maid 

Husband 

Wife 

Beau 

Belle 

King 

Queen 

Boar 

Sow 

Lad 

Lass 

Boy 

Girl 

Lord 

Lady 

Brother 

Sister 

Man 

Woman 

Buck 

Doe 

Master 

Mistress 

Bull 

Cow 

Nephew 

Niece 

Cock 

Hen 

Ram 

Ewe 

Brake 

Duck 

Sir 

Madam 

Earl 

Countess 

Son 

Daughter 

Father 

Mother 

Stag 

Hind 

Friar 

Nun 

Sloven 

Slut 

Gander 

Goose 

Uncle 

Aunt 

Hart 

Roe 

Wizard 

Witch 

Horse 

Mare 

2.  By  difFcrent  endings;  as, 


Male. 

Female. 

Male. 

Female. 

Abbott 

Abbess 

Canon 

Canoness 

Actor 

Actress 

Caterer 

Cftteress 

Administrator 

Administratrix 

Chanter 

Chantress 

Adulterer 

Adulteress 

Conductor 

Conductress 

Ambassador 

Ambassadress 

Count 

Countess 

Arbiter 

Arbitress 

Czar 

Czarina 

Baron 

Baroness 

Deacon 

Dcnconcss 

Benefactor 

Benefactress 

Duke 

Duchess 

Bridegroom 

Bride 

Elector 

Electress 

22 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


Male. 

Female. 

Male. 

Female. 

Emperor 

Empress 

Prince 

Princess 

God 

Goddess 

Prophet 

Prophetess 

Heir 

Heiress 

Shepherd 

Shepherdess 

Hero 

Heroine 

Songster 

Songstress 

Hunter 

Huntress 

Sorcerer 

Sorceress 

Governor 

Governess 

Sultan 

Sultana  or 

Inheritor 

Inheritrix  or 

Sultaness 

Inheritress 

Suitor 

Suitress 

Jew 

Jewess 

Tiger 

Tigress 

Lion 

Lioness 

Testator 

Testatrix 

■Marquis 

Marchioness 

Traitor 

Traitress 

Mayor 

Mayoress 

Tutor 

Tutoress 

Patron 

Patroness 

Victor 

Victress 

Peer 

Peeress 

Viscount 

Viscountess 

Poet 

Poetess 

Widower 

Widow 

Priest 

Priestess 

3.  By  diflferent  prefixes ;  as 

1 

/ 

Male. 

Female 

Cock-sparrow 

Hen-span-ow 

He-bear 

She-bear 

He 

•goat 

She-goat 

Male  child 

Female  child 

Male  descendant 

Female  descendant 

Man-servant 

Female  servant 

EXERCISE. 

Give  the  masculine  and  feminine  nouns  corresponding  to  the  following 
model: 

Boy,  girl;  woman,  man. 

Maid,  abbot,  witch,  mare,  friar,  father,  aunt,  king,  niece, 
bride,  sorcerer,  songstress,  shepherd,  prince,  poet,  peeress, 
mistress,  heroine,  hunter,  lion,  votary,  traitress,  goddess, 
maid-servant,  horse,  she-goat,  he-bear,  tutor,  benefactress, 
tyrant,  prophetess,  priest,  Jewess,  testatrix,  patron,  deacon, 
gander,  mother,  sister,  wife,  widow. 


NUMBER.  23 


LESSON    X. 

NUMBER. 

Q.  What  is  number  ? 

A.  Number  is  that  property  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  by 
which  we  determine  how  many  are  meant — whether  one  or 
more  than  one. 

Q.  How  many  numbers  are  there  ? 

A.  Two;  singular  and  plural. 

Q.  What  does  the  singular  number  denote  ? 

A.  One ;  as,  hoy,  horse,  gun. 

Q.  What  does  the  plural  number  denote  ? 

A.  More  than  one ;  as,  boys,  horses,  guns. 

Q.  Which  may  be  considered  the  first  form  of  a  noun,  the  singular 
or  the  plural  ? 

A.  The  singular ;  since  the  plural,  in  most  cases,  is  formed 
from  the  singular.  [Besides,  it  is  natural  that  objects  should 
first  receive  their  names  singly  before  there  should  be  a  noun 
to  denote  the  plural  of  the  same  species.] 

Q.  What  are  the  rules  for  forming  the  plural  ? 

A.  General  Rule  :  Add  s  to  the  singular ',  as,  hoy, 
(sing.,)  hoys,  (plural ;)  girl,  (sing.,)  girls,  (plural.) 

Q.  What  are  the  special  rules  ? 

A.  I.  Nouns  ending  in  i,  s,  sh,  ch,  (soft,)  x,  z,  or  o,  form 
the  plural  by  adding  es  to  the  singular;  as,  pass,  passes; 
brush,  brushes;  church,  churches ;  box,  boxes ;  phiz,  phizes; 
hero,  heroes  ;  houri,  houries. 

Ex.  Nouns  ending  in  eo  or  io,  as  also  canto,  grotto,  halo, 
portico,  quarto,  solo,  and  some  others,  form  their  plural  by 
adding  s;  as,  cameo,  cameos;  seraglio,  seraglios;  tyro, 
tyros. 

II.  Nouns  ending  in  y,  after  a  consonant,  or  qu,  change  y 
into  ies,  to  form  the  plural ;  as,  pony,  ponies ;  colloquy,  col- 


24 


ENGLISH   GRAiMiMAR. 


loquies.  But  if  y  is  preceded  by  a  vowel,  the  plural  is 
formed  according  to  the  general  rule  ]  as,  monkey^  monkeys. 
III.  Fifteen  nouns  in  /  or  fe — viz. :  Uafj  calf,  self,  half 
hcef  loaf  sheaf  shelf  loolf  loharf  thief  elf  icife,  knife, 
life — form  the  plural  by  changing  /  or  fe  into  ves  ;  as  loaf, 
loaves;  wife,  wives. 

Note. — Staff,  a  walking-stick,  changes  ff  into  ves  for  the  plural,  but 
its  compounds  form  the  plural  regularly. 

Q.  What  are  the  irregular  nouns  ? 

A.  Such  as   do    not  form   the   plural   according   to  any 


rule;  as, 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Man 

Men 

Goose 

Geese 

Woman 

Women 

Mouse 

Mice 

Child 

Children 

Louse 

Lice 

Foot 

Feet 

Cow 

Cows  or  kine 

Ox 

Oxen 

Tooth 

Teeth 

Q.  How  do 

nouns  introduced  frc 

)ra  foreign  languages  usually  form 

their  plural  ? 

A.  They 

retain  their  origins 

il  form  of  the 

plural;  as, 

Smgtdar. 

Plural. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Antithesis 

Antitheses 

Effluvium 

Effluvia 

Appendix 

Appendices  or 

Ellipsis 

Ellipses 

appendixes 

Emphasis 

Emphases 

Arcanum 

Arcana 

Encomium 

Encomia  or  en- 

Automaton 

Automata 

comiums 

Axis 

Axes 

Erratum 

Errata 

Beau 

Beaux 

Genus 

Genera 

Basis 

Bases 

Hypothesis 

Hypotheses 

Calx 

•    Calces 

Index 

Indices  or 

Cherub 

Cherubim 

indexes. 

Crisis 

Crises 

Lamina 

Laminse 

Criterion 

Criteria 

Magus 

Magi 

Datum 

Data 

Memorandum 

Memoranda  of 

Desideratum 

Desiderata 

memorandums 

Diseresis 

Diaereses 

Metamorphosis  Metamorphoses 

NUMBER. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Parenthesis 

Parentheses 

Stimulus 

Stimuli 

Phenomenon 

Phenomena 

Stratum 

Strata 

Radius 

Radii 

Thesis 

Theses 

Stamen 

Stamina 

Vertex 

Vertices 

Seraph 

Seraphim  or 

Vortex 

Vortices  or 

seraphs. 

vortexes. 

25 


Note. — Some  other  words  besides  the  above  are  sometimes  used, 
but  these  are  the  most  common. 

Q.  Have  any  nouns  two  forms  in  the  plural  ? 

A.  Yes ;  but  they  have  different  meanings ;  as, 


Singular. 
Brother. 

Die. 

Fish. 

Genius. 

Index. 

Pea. 

Penny. 


Plural. 
Brothers,  (of  the  same 

family.) 
Dies,  (for  coining.) 
Fishes,  (individuals.) 


Plural. 
Brethren,  (of  the  same 

society.) 
Dice,  (for  gaming.) 
Fish,  (the  species.) 


Geniuses,  (men  of  genius.)  Genii,  (imaginary  spirits.) 
Indexes,  (tables  of  contents.)  Indices,  (signs  in  algebra.) 
Peas,  (distinct  objects.)  Pease,  (referring  to  a  mass.) 

Pennies,  "  Pence,  '* 


Q.  Are  any  nouns  used  only  in  the  singular  ? 

A.  Yes ;  names  of  metals,  virtues,  vices,  and  those  which 
denote  things  measured  or  weighed,  are  generally  used  in 
the  singular ;  as,  gold,  temperance,  heef,  cider.  But,  to  ex- 
press varieties,  some  have  plural  forms;  as,  icine,  wines ; 
sugar,  sugars;  metal,  metals. 

Q.  What  nouns  are  used  only  in  the  plural? 

A.  Annals,  antipodes,  assets,  embers,  ashes,  credenda, 
clothes,  scissors,  and  some  others. 

Q.  What  nouns  in  the  singular  form  are  either  singular  or  plural  ? 

A.  Deer,  sheep,  swine,  trout,  salmon,  apparatus,  hiatus, 
and  some  others. 

Q.  What  nouns  in  the  plural  form  arc  either  singular  or  plural  ? 

A.  Amends,  means,  riches,  j^ciins,  and  the  names  of  some 


26  ENQLISH    GRAMMAR. 

of  the  sciences;  as,  mathematics,  metaphysics,  ethics,  optics, 
politics. 

Note. — The  last-mentioned  nouns  are  used  mostly  in  the  singular. 

Q.  How  is  the  plural  of  proper  nouns  formed  ? 

A.  According  to  the  general  rule  ^  as,  Crawford,  Craw- 
fords  j  Simpson,  Simpsons. 

Note  1. — The  word  *♦  <Ac"  should  be  placed  before  the  plural 
of  proper  nouns ;  as,  The  Craw/ords. 

Note  2. — Proper  names  have  the  plural  only  when  they  refer  to  a 
tribe  or  family ;  or  to  several  persons  of  the  same  namej  as,  The 
twelve  Csesars  ;  The  three  Mr.  Bays. 

Note  3. — When  a  title  is  prefixed  to  the  proper  name  the  title  is 
usually  made  plural,  whether  the  names  are  the  same  or  different ; 
as,  The  Misses  Gordon  ;  Misses  Jones  ;  Misses  Brown  and  Whitby.  But 
some  authorities  say,  '*  Miss"  Gordons ;  varying  the  name  to  form 
the  plural.  This,  though  not  so  common,  is  quite  as  good  as  the 
other. 

Note  4. — When  the  title  "Mrs."  is  used,  the  name  is  varied  ^o 
form  the  plural ;  as.  The  Mrs.  Bells ;  The  two  Mrs.  Smiths. 

Q.  How  do  compound  nouns  form  their  plural  ? 

A.  They  vary  the  principal  word;  as,  father-in-law, 
fathers-in-law  ;  son-in-law,  sons-in-law  ;  fellow -servant, 
fellow-servants. 

Q.  How  do  compounds  ending  in  ful  form  their  plural  ? 

A.  By  the  general  rule ;  as,  cupful,  cupfuls. 

Note. — Men-servants  and  women-servants  have  both  words  plural, 

EXERCISE. 

Give  the  singular^  or  plural^  corresponding  to  the  forms  below  ;  alsOj 
give  the  rule  in  each  case. 

Cow,  hog,  pony,  eagle,  time,  arcana,  antithesis,  axes,  loaf, 
gold,  wheat,  oats,  alkali,  bees,  ashes,  ethics,  mother-in-law, 
step-mother,  Cicero,  Mr.  Snell,  Miss  Leslie,  Mrs.  Ray,  optics, 
men,  oxen,  strata,  beaux,  geese,  box,  moon,  church,  overseer, 
case,  face,  hand,  nail,  wish,  lash,  lass,  mass,  watch,  atlas, 


PERSON    OP   NOUNS.  27 

books,  heroes,  veto,  grotto,  negroes,  mulatto,  motto,  fifes, 
strife,  turf,  hoof,  leaves,  wives,  lice,  mouse,  deer,  swine, 
vermin,  folio,  bagnio,  story,  lady,  babies,  bamboo,  cherry, 
berries,  turkeys,  kidney,  ambiguity,  soliloquy,  cupful,  hand- 
fuls,  courts-martial. 

Correct  the  following  sentences : 

Mary  saw  two  mans.  John  went  after  the  turheies. 
Gooses  can  swim  in  pontics.  The  two  men  have  wifes. 
Thomas  gave  four  pennys  for  some  cherrys.  The  doges  will 
leave  i\iQ  Jieldes.  The  cat  caught  some  mouses.  The  shel/s 
in  my  desk  are  broken.  There  were  three  heros  in  the  late 
war.  Thiefs  will  steal  knifes.  Anna  divided  the  apples  into 
haJfs.    Mary's  s^Mt/ys  are  difficult.    Three /bo/s  make  a  yard. 


LESSON     XI. 

PERSON    OF    NOUNS. 

Q.  What  is  person  ? 

A.  It  is  that  property  of  a  noun  which  distinguishes  it  as 
the  speaker  J  or  writer  ;  the  person  spoken  to  ;  or  the  person, 
or  thing  spoken  of. 

Q.  How  many  persons  are  there  ? 

A.  Three  :  first,  second,  and  third. 

Q.  What  does  the  first  person  denote  ? 

A.  The  speaker,  or  writer ;  as,  "  I,  Jamesj  did  it." 

Q.  What  does  the  second  person  denote  ? 

A.  The  person  spoken  to,  or  addressed ;  as,  John,  study 
diligently. 

Q.  What  does  the  third  person  denote  ? 

A.  The  person  or  thing  spoken  of;  as.  The  trees  grow. 


28  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE. 

Name  the  nouns  and  tell  their  person  in  the  following  sentences : 
Model. — I,  Charles,  said  it. —  Charles  is  a  proper  noun  of 

the  first  person. 

I,  Henry,  will  do  what  you  command.     John,  come  to  me. 

Susan,  are  you  reading?     James  said  that  he  was  reading. 

The  man  came.     The   hoys  are   going.      The  servants  are 

dutiful.     The  cotton  is  growing.     The  wheat  is  ripe. 


LESSON     XII. 

CASES   OF   NOUNS. 

Q.  What  is  case  ? 

A.  Case  is  that  property  of  nouns  which  indicates  their 
relation  to  some  other  word  or  words  in  the  same  sentence. 

Q.  How  many  cases  have  nouns  ? 

A.  Three :  nominative,  possessive,  and  objective. 

Q.  What  does  the  nominative  case  denote  ? 

A.  It  usually  denotes  the  relation  of  the  subject  of  a  sen- 
tence. 

Q.  What  does  the  possessive  case  denote  ? 

A.  The  relation  of  ownership,  or  origin. 

Q.  How  is  the  possessive  case  of  nouns  in  the  singular  usually 
formed  ? 

A.  By  a(}ding  s  with  an  apostrophe  [']  before  it  to  the 
nominative  singular;  as  "Woman's  constancy.'' 

Q.  Is  there  any  exception  to  this  rule  ? 

A.  There  is ;  when  a  word  ends  with  the  sound  of  s,  or  z, 
the  addition  of  s  would  create  a  harshness ;  and  hence  the  s 
is  usually  omitted  in  such  cases ;  as,  "  For  goodness'  sake  •/* 
*'  For  conscience'  sake." 


CASES  OF   NOUNS.  29 

NoTK. — There  is  no  invariable  rule  on  this  subject:  the  ear  shoiald 
decide.  The -sford  witness  has  the  apostrophe  and  s ;  as,  "The  wit- 
ness's oath." 

Q.  How  is  the  possessive  of  plural  nouns  formed  ? 

A.  If  the  nomioative  ends  in  s,  by  adding  the  apos- 
trophe only ;  otherwise,  regularly ;  as,  "  Boys'  hats,"  "  Men's 
shoes." 

Note. — When  the  singular  and  plural  arc  alike  in  the  nominative, 
the  apostrophe  should  follow  the  5  in  the  plural  to  distinguish  it  fi-om 
the  singular;  as,  "Sheep's  wool,"  (sing.,)  "Sheeps'  wool,"  (plu.) 

Q.  Are  the  apostrophe  and  s  ever  used  to  denote  any  thing  except 
the  possessive  case  ? 

A.  Yes ;  they  are  often  used  to  denote  plurality ;  as,  The 
a's,  b's,  c's,  5's,  pro's,  con's,  etc. 

Q.  When  several  nouns  are  in  the  possessive  case,  limiting  the 
same  noun,  how  is  the  possessive  expressed? 

A.  By  putting  the  last  noun  in  the  possessive ;  as,  "  Lid- 
dell  &  Scott's  Lexicon." 

Note. — If  it  were  written  Liddell's  &  Scott's  Lexicon,  it  would 
denote  that  each  was  the  author  of  a  different  lexicon. 

EXERCISE. 
Spell  and  write  the  possessive  case  of  each  of  the  following  nouns : 
Apple,  apricot,  berry,  berries,  cherries,  chairs,  dog,  domes, 
elephant,  Eliza,  fence,  fiddles,  goose,  graves,  horses,  hawk, 
ink,  inches,  James,  jay,  Kate,  lice,  lady,  Mary,  morass. 
Nelson,  needless,  okra,  Oscar,  pailings,  painting,  querulous- 
ness,  rats,  rail,  snake,  snuif,  tea,  tables,  union,  virtue,  vanity, 
watchfulness,  water,  Xerxes,  yelks,  zinc. 

OBJECTIVE   CASE. 

Q.  What  does  the  objective  case  denote? 

A.  The  object  of  a  verb,  participle,  or  preposition  j  as, 
You  know  the  man. 


30  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Q.  How  may  the  object  of  a  verb,  participle,  or  preposition,  be 
known  ? 

A.  It  answers  to  whom  or  what  after  the  verb,  participle, 
or  preposition )  as,  "  The  boy  knows  the  man." — The  boy 
knows  ichom  ?  Ans.  The  man. — "  The  man  of  straw." — 
The  man  of  what  ?     Ans.   Strato, 

Q.  Wiiat  form  has  a  noun  in  the  objective  case? 

A.  The  same  form  as  the  nominative,  and  is  distinguished 
from  it  by  its  position  in  a  sentence,  or  its  simple  dependence 
according  to  the  sense. 

Q.  In  what  does  parsing  consist  ? 

A.  In  naming  a  part  of  speech,  giving  its  modifications, 
relation,  agreement,  or  dependence,  and  the  rule  for  its  con- 
struction. 

Q.  What  is  the  order  of  parsing  a  noun  ? 

A.  Tell,  1.  What  part  of  speech  it  is.     Why? 

2.  Proper  or  common.     Why? 

3.  Its  gender,  (if  it  has  any.)     Why? 

4.  Person.     Why  ? 

5.  Number.     Why? 

6.  Case.     Why? 

7.  The  rule. 

EXERCISE. 

Model  for  parsing  the  possessive  case. — Maria's  dog. 

3Iaria*s  is  a  noun — the  name  of  an  object;  proper — it  is 
the  name  of  an  individual;  feminine  gender — the  name  of  a 
female ;  third  person — spoken  of;  singular  number — it  means 
but  one;  possessive  case — it  denotes  ownership;  and  limits 
the  noun  dog  according  to 

Rule  A. — The  possessive  case  limits  the  noun  with 

WHICH  it  is  connected. 


DECLENSION   OP   NOUNS. — PARSING. 


31 


LESSON    XIII. 

DECLENSION   OF  NOUNS. — PARSING. 

Q.  What  is  the  declension  of  a  noun  ? 

A.  The  regular  arrangement  of  its  numbers  and  cases; 
thus: 


Example  I. — Pond. 


Singular. 
Nom.  Pond. 
Poss.   Pond's. 
Obj.    Pond. 


Example  II. — Woman. 


Singular. 
Kom.  Woman. 
Poss.   Woman's. 
Obj.     Woman, 


Example  III. — Box. 


Singular. 
Notn.  Box. 
Poss.  Box's. 
Obj.     Box. 


Example  IV. — Sky. 


Singular. 
Nom.  Sky. 
Poss.   Sky's. 
Obj.     Sky. 


Plural. 
Ponds. 
Ponds'. 
Ponds. 


Plural. 
Women. 
Women's. 
Women. 


Plural. 
Boxes. 
Boxes'. 
Boxes. 


Plural. 
Skies. 
Skies'. 
Skies. 


Let  the  pupil  parse  the  nouns  in  the  possessive  in  the  fol- 
lowing 

EXERCISE. 

The  rose's   bloom.      Youth's  joys.      Old   age's   sorrows. 
Time's  revolving  wheel.    The  old  year's  departure.     Laura's 


32  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

book.  For  conscience'  sake.  Mercy's  sake.  Pigs'  pen. 
Boys'  hats.  Sheep's  wooh  Men's  appetite.  Julia's  bonnet. 
Angels'  songs.  Mary's  mother's  sister's  daughter's  cousin's 
uncle's  hat.  John's  brother's  boot.  Peter's  wife's  mother's 
knife.  Anna's  new  slate.  This  is  Charles'  book,  and  that 
is  Abbie's.  Home's  blessings.  Time's  fleeting  moments. 
Love's  smiles. 


LESSON    XIV. 

PRONOUNS. 

Q.  What  is  a  pronoun  ? 

A.  A  pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  or  for  a  noun ; 
as,  John  was  lazy,  and  he  left  his  plow. 

Q.  For  what  purpose  do  we  use  pronouns? 

A.  We  use  them,  first,  to  avoid  repeating  nouns  previously 
mentioned;  secondly,  the  person  speahing  may  use  pronouns 
to  designate  himself  and  the  person  addressed;  in  which 
cases  the  pronoun  may  not  stand  for  any  name,  or  imply  a 
previous  mention  of  any  name. 

Examples. — "  Mary  wants  her  book."  In  this  sentence 
the  pronoun  "  7ier"  stands  for  Mary's  and  is  used  to  avoid 
the  repetition  of  that  noun. 

"  /am  going  home."  "  Where  are  you  going ?"  In  these 
sentences  "/"  and  "^o?t"  are  used  respectively  for  the 
^^ person  speahing^'  and  the  ^^ person  addressed  ;^'  an(J  have 
no  reference  to  names  previously  mentioned. 

Q.  Do  pronouns  stand  merely  for  nouns  ? 

A.  No :  properly  speaking,  pronouns  stand  for  nouns  and 
the  words  that  limit  them;  thus,  *'  The  good  wornan  treated 
us  so  hospitably  that  we  were  compelled  to  love  her.''  In 
this  sentence,  her  stands  for  "  the  good  woman." 


PRONOUNS.  33 

Q.  Into  how  many  classes  are  pronouns  divided  ? 

A.  Three  :  personalj  relative,  and  interrogative. 

^  PERSONAL   PRONOUNS. 

Q.  What  is  a  personal  pronoun  ? 

A.  A  personal  pronoun  is  used  both  to  represent  a  noun 
and  show  its  person. 

Q.  Will  you  name  the  personal  pronouns  ? 

A.  They  are,  /,  tliou  or  you,  he,  she  it.  These  are  the 
simple  personal  pronouns. 

Q.  What  modifications  have  pronouns  ? 

A.  They  have  the  same  modifications  as  nouns ;  namely, 
persons,  numbers,  genders,  and  cases. 

Q.  How  are  the  persons,  numbers,  etc.,  of  personal  pronouns 
usually  distinguished  ? 

A.  By  the  words  themselves,  as  will  be  seen  from  the 

DECLENSION   OF   PRONOUNS. 

I;  of  the  first  person,  either  gender. 

Singular.  Plural. 

Nom.  I.  We. 

Poss.  My  or  mine.  Our  or  ours. 

Obj.    Me.  Us. 

Thou,  of  the  second  person,  either  gender. 

Singular.  Plural. 

Norn.  Thou.  You  or  ye. 

Poss.  Thy  or  thine.  Your  or  yours. 

Obj.     Thee.  You. 

He,  of  the  third  person,  masculine  gender. 

Singular.  Plural. 

Nom.  He.  They. 

Poss.   His.  Their  or  theirs. 

Ohj.     Him.  Them. 
9 


34  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

She,  of  the  third  person,  feminine  gender. 

Singular.  Plural. 

Norn.  She.  They. 

Poss.  Her  or  hers.  Their  or  theirs. 

Obj.     Her.  Them. 

ITj  of  the  third  person,  gender  unknown  or  loanting. 

Singular.  Plural. 

Norn.  It.  They. 

Poss.  Its.  Their  or  theirs. 

Obj.     It.  Them. 

Note. — Three  of  the  personal  pronouns  have  two  forms  of  the 
possessive  in  the  singular  number,  my  or  mine,  thy  or  thine,  her  or 
hers ;  and  in  the  plural  all  of  them  have  two  forms,  our  or  ours,  your 
or  yours,  their  or  theirs.  The  first  form  is  used  before  the  noun  ex- 
pressed, the  second,  when  the  noun  is  understood,  or  does  not  imme- 
dietely  follow  tlie  pronoun. 


COMPOUND   PERSONAL   PRONOUNS. 

Q.  "What  are  compound  personal  pronouns  ? 

A.  When  the  word  "  self"  is  added  to  the  simple  personal 
pronouns,  they  form  compound  j)ersonal ^^'ronouns. 

Q.  How  many  compound  personal  pronouns  are  there  t 

A.   Five  :  myself,  thyself,  himself  herself  itself. 

Q.  AVhen  are  these  v/^ords  used  ? 

A.  When  an  action  reverts  upon  the  doer,  and  when  some 
person  is  to  be  distinguished  from  others. 

Q.  Do  these  pronouns  have  all  of  the  cases  ? 

A.  They  do  not :  they  are  wanting  in  the  possessive,  and 
are  alike  in  the  nominative  and  objective;  as, 

Singular.  Plural. 

Nom.  Myself.  Ourselves. 
Poss. 

Obj.     Myself.  Ourselves. 


PRONOUNS. 

Singular, 

Plural. 

Nom.  Thyself. 

Yourselves. 

Poss. 

OhJ.    Thyself. 

Yourselves. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Nom.  Himself. 

Themselves. 

Poss. 

OhJ.    Himself. 

Themselves. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Nom.  Herself. 

Themselves. 

Poss. 

Obj.     Herself. 

Themselves. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Nom.  Itself. 

Themselves. 

Poss. 

Obj.    Itself. 

Themselves. 

35 


Q.  What  is  the  order  of  parsing  a  pronoun  ? 
A.  Tell,  1.  What  part  of  speech.     Why? 

2.  What  kind.     Why? 

3.  Person.     Why? 

4.  Number.     Why? 

5.  Gender.     Why? 

6.  Case.     Why? 

7.  Rule. 

Let  the  pupit  par^e  the  nouns  and  pronouns  in  tJie  possess- 
ive case  in  the  following 

EXERCISE. 

Model. — His  book. 

His  is  a  pronoun — a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun ;  per- 
sonal pronoun — it  represents  the  name  of  some  one,  and 
shows  the  person ;  masculine  gender — it  denotes  the  name 
of  a  male;    third    person — spoken  of;   singular  number-r^ 


36  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

means  but  one;    possessive   case — denotes   ownership,   and 
limits  the  noun  hooh  according  to 

KuLE  A — The  possessive  case  limits  the  noun  with 

WHICH  IT  IS  connected. 

Her  slate.  My  boot.  Your  hat.  His  dog.  Their  house. 
The  cat's  paw.  Its  pen.  The  man's  hair.  His  sheep, 
lien's  ^^^.  Our  pig.  The  cow's  horn.  Thy  nonsense. 
Thy  father's  counsel.  Your  brother's  rage.  Our  sister's 
cousin.     Their  uncle's  cow. 


LESSON     XV. 

relative  and  interrogative  pronouns. 

Q.  What  is  a  relative  pronoun  ? 

A.  A  relative  pronoun  is  a  pronoun  that  stands  for  some 
word  or  clause,  called  the  antecedent,  and  connects  its  clause 
with  the  antecedent  clause. 

Q.  Will  you  name  the  relative  pronouns  ? 

A.  They  are  who^  which,  what,  and  that ;  and  the  com- 
pounds lohoever  or  lohosoever,  whichever  or  whichsoever,  what- 
ever or  whatsoever. 

Q,  When  is  who  used  ? 

A.  Who  is  used  in  speaking  of  persons ;  as,  ^^  That  is  the 
girl  who  came." 

Q.  When  is  wAecA  used? 

A.  Which  is  used  in  speaking  of  animals  and  things ;  as, 
"  The  cow  luhich  jumps."     "  The  vine  ivhich  bears  grapes." 

Q.  Is  which  ever  used  in  speaking  of  persons  ? 

A.  It  is,  when  we  wish  to  distinguish  one  individual  from 
another,  or  a  particular  one  from  many  others;  also,  when  a 
collection  of  persons  is  referred  to  as  a  wliole ;  as,  "  He  told 


RELATIVE  AND  INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS.     37 

me  whi'cJi  of  the  men  had  gone."  ^'  The  committee  which 
was  appointed." 

Q.  AVhen  is  that  used  ? 

A.  That  is  used  instead  of  icho  or  ichich  in  speaking  of 
persons,  animals,  or  things ;  as,  "  The  man  that  (who)  spoke.'' 
"The  dog  that  (which)  bites."  "The  tree  that  (which) 
bears  fruit." 

Q.  When  is  that  used  in  preference  to  who  or  which  ? 

A.  That  is  used  in  preference  to  who  or  ichich  in  the  fol- 
lowing cases  : 

1.  In  speaking  of  persons  and  things;  as,  "The  boy  and 
the  dog  that  I  saw  are  dead." 

2.  In  speaking  of  children ;  as,  "  The  child  that  came." 

3.  After  the  adjective  same  ;  as,  "  This  is  the  same  woman 
that  passed  here  yesterday." 

4.  After  the  superlative  degree ;  as,  "  He  is  the  tallest 
man  that  the  country  ever  produced." 

5.  After  the  relative  who  ;  as,  "  Who  that  thinks." 

6.  To  avoid  the  repetition  of  the  relative  loho ;  as,  "The 
man  who  came  to  town,  and  the  servant  that  drove  his  car- 
riage, have  been  lost." 

Q.  Is  that  always  a  relative  ? 

A.  It  is  not;  but  it  is  always  a  relative  when  loho  or 
which  can  be  substituted  for  it;  as,  "The  days  that  (which) 
are  gone  for  ever."     "  The  man  that  (who)  came." 

Q.  How  is  what  used  ? 

A.  It  is  used  only  when  the  antecedent  is  omitted,  and  is 
applied  to  things;  as,  "The  man  received  what  he  wanted." 

Q.  What  is  lohat  equivalent  to  as  a  relative  ? 

A.  To  that  which,  or  the  thing  which;  as,  "The  man  re- 
ceived ichat — that  is,  that  tchich,  or  the  thing  which — he 
wanted." 

Q.  How  are  the  compound  relatives  used? 

A.  Like  their  corresponding  simple  pronouns. 


38  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

DECLENSION   OF   RELATIVE   PRONOUNS. 

Who,  applied  to  persons. 

Singular.  »  Plural. 

Nom.  Who.  Who. 

Pots.  Whose.  Whose. 

ObJ.    Whom.  Whom. 

Which,  applied  to  animals  and  things. 
Singular.  Plural. 

Nom.  Which.  Which. 

Poss.  * 
Obj.    Which.  Which. 

What,  usually  applied  to  things. 

Singular.  Plural. 

Nom.  What.  What. 

Poss. 
Obj.    What.  What. 

That,  applied  to  persons,  animals,  and  things. 

Singular.  Plural. 

Nom.  That.  That. 
Poss. 

Obj.    That.  That. 

Q.  How  are  the  compound  relative  pronouns  declined  ? 
A.  In  the  same  manner  as  the  simple  relatives ;  8S, 

Singular.  Plural. 

Nom.  Whoever.  Whoever. 

Poss.  Whosever.  Whosever. 

Obj.    Whomever.  Whomever. 

INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

Q.  What  are  interrogative  pronouns  ? 

A.  The  interrogative  pronouns  are  pronouns  used  in  asking 
questions. 

*  Whose  is  often  used  as  the  possessive  oi  which;  as,  "A  religion 
whose  origin  is  divine." 


VERBS.  ^  39 

Q.  Name  them. 

A.  They  are,  wliOy  wMchj  and  wJiat^  when  they  are  used 
in  asking  questions;  as,  ^' Who  comes?"  *' Which  is  the 
house  ?"  *'  What  are  you  holding  ?" 

Q.  To  what  are  who,  which,  and  what  respectively  applied  when 
used  interrogatively  ? 

A.  Who  is  applied  to  persons,  ichich  and  what  to  persons, 
animals,  and  things. 

Q.  What  does  who  inquire  for  ?  which  ?  what  f 

A.  JVho  inquires  for  the  name ;  which  for  the  individual, 
and  what  for  the  character  or  occupation.  As,  ^'  Who  em- 
ploys you?"  "Mr.  Mann.''  ''Which  of  the  Manns?" 
"  John."     "  What  is  he  ?"    "A  farmer." 

Q.  What  is  the  difference  between  relatives  and  interrogatives  ? 

A.  Relatives  have  reference  to  subjects  that  are  antecedent^ 
cfc finite,  and  Jcnown',  while  interrogatives  refer  to  subjects 
that  are  suhsequenfy  indefinitCy  and  unhnowny  which  it  is  ex- 
pected the  answer  will  contain. 


LESSON    XVI. 

VERBS. 

Q.  What  is  a  verb  ? 

A.  A  verb  is  a  word  which  affirms  the  action  or  state  (ex- 
pressed by  it)  of  its  subject. 

Q.  How  are  verbs  divided  with  respect  to  their  signification  ? 

A.  Into  transitive  and  intransitive, 

Q.  What  is  a  transitive  verb? 

A.  One  that  requires  the  addition  of  an  object  to  complete 
its  meaning;  as,  "John  struck  the  bird." 

Q.  What  is  an  intransitive  verb  ? 

A.  One  that  does  not  require  the  addition  of  an  object  to 
complete  its  meaning;  as,  "The  dog  harks.'^ 


40  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

MODIFICATIONS  OF    VERBS. 

Q.  How  many  kinds  of  modifications  have  verbs  ? 
A.   Five :    voicesj  moods  or  modes,  tenses,  numbers,  and 
persons. 

VOICES. 

Q.  To  what  is  voice  applied  ? 

A.  To  the  two  forms  of  the  transitive  verb. 

Q.  How  many  voices  have  verbs  ? 

A.  Two :  the  active  and  the  passive. 

Q.  What  does  a  verb  in  the  active  voice  represent? 

A.  It  represents  the  action  of  the  verb  as  terminating  on 
some  object  different  from  its  subject,  or  upon  the  subject 
expressed  in  the  form  of  a  compound  pronoun ;  as,  '^  John 
strikes  the  dog  ;  the  dog  bites  htmseJf." 

Q.  What  does  the  passive  voice  represent  ? 

A.  It  shows  that  the  subject  (nominative)  is  acted  upon  ; 
as,  '^  James  is  struck  by  John." 

Q.  How  many  equivalent  forms  may  a  sentence  containing  a 
transitive  verb,  take? 

A.  Two :  one  in  which  the  verb  is  in  the  active  voice,  and 
the  other  in  which  it  is  in  the  passive  voice;  as,  "Julia 
loves  Mary,''  is  equivalent  to  "  Mary  is  loved  by  Julia." 

Note. — When  the  verb  has  the  passive  form,  the  agent,  or  doer, 
is  in  the  objective  case  after  "6y." 


LESSON    XVII. 

MOOD  OR  MODE. — TENSE. 

Q.  What  is  mode  ? 

A.  The  manner  in  which  the  attribute  is  asserted  of  the 
subject. 


MOOD    OR    MODE. — TENSE.  4|, 

Q.  IIow  many  modes  have  verbs  ? 

A.  Four:  the  indicative^  the  potentialy  the  imperative^ 
and  the  injinitive. 

Q.  What  does  the  indicative  mode  do  ? 

A.  It  affirms  the  action  or  state  of  a  verb  as  a  fact  or  ques- 
tion ,  as,  ''  The  boy  loves:'  ''  Does  the  boy  loveV  *'  If  the 
boy  loves.''* 

Q.  What  docs  the  potential  mode  express  ? 

A.  It  expresses  the  ahility,  poiver,  ivill,  or  ohliyation  of 
performing  an  act,  or  being  in  a  state ;  as,  ^'  The  boy  can 
learn."     "If  he  may  learn."     ^^  May  he  he?" 

Q.  For  what  is  the  imperative  mode  used  ? 

A.  It  is  used  to  express  a  command,  exhortation^  entreaty, 
or  permission  ;  as,  "  Obey  your  teacher.''  "  Save  my  child." 
*^  Dejjart  in  peace." 

Q.  What  does  the  infinitive  mode  express? 

A.  It  expresses  the  action  of  the  verb  ahsfractly,  and  has 
no  variation  of  form  for  the  different  numbers  and  persons ; 
as,  "To  love,"   "To  see." 

TENSE. 

Q.  What  docs  tense  denote  ? 

A.  Tense  denotes  time;  and  as  applied  to  the  verb,  is 
that  property  which  shows  whether  it  represents  an  action  or 
state,  as  present,  past,  or  future. 

Q.  How  many  kinds  of  tenses  are  tliere? 

A.   Two  :   absolute  and  relative. 

Q.  What  is  an  absolute  tense? 

A.  One  that  represents  an  action  or  state  as  hein(j  per- 
formed or  existing  in  present,  past,  or  future  time. 


Note.— Most  grammarians— if  the  indicativo  or  potential  mode  is  nsed  conr 
ditionnUy,  by  employing  a  conjunctive— call  this  manner  of  affirmation  the 
tuhjunctivc  mode. 


42  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Q.  From  what  do  the  absolute  tenses  take  their  names? 

A.  They  take  the  names  of  the  divisions  of  time  to  which 
they  belong ;  namely,  the  present,  past,  and  future  tenses. 

Q.  What  is  a  relative  tense  ? 

A.  One  that  represents  an  action  or  state  as  completed  in 
present,  past,  or  future  time. 

Q.  How  are  the  relative  tenses  named  ? 

A.  By  adding  the  word  "perfect^'*  to  the  name  of  the 
division  of  time  ;  as,  present  perfect,  past  perfect,  future  •per- 
fect. 

Q.  What  does  a  verb  in  Wi^  present  tense  denote  ? 

A.  That  its  action  or  state,  is  talcing  place,  or  existing,  in 
present  time ;  as,  "  I  go." 

Q.  What  does  a  verb  in  the  past  tense  denote? 

A.  That  its  action  or  state  took  place,  oi  existed,  in  past 
time ',  as,  "  I  ran." 

Q.  What  does  a  verb  in  the  future  tense  denote  ? 

A.  That  its  action  or  state  will  take  place,  or  exist  in  fu- 
ture time;  as,  ^'  I  will  run." 

Q.  What  does  a  verb  in  the  present  perfect  denote? 

A.  That  its  action  or  state  is  completed  in  present  time,  or 
at  a  past  period  which  forms  a  part  of  the  present;  as,  "I 
have  studied  my  lesson  to-day." 

Q.  The  past  perfect  f 

A.  That  its  action  was  completed  before  some  past  time 
mentioned,  or  implied;  as,  "I  had  run  before  I  saw  you." 

Q.  The  future  perfect  ? 

A.  That  its  action  will  have  taken  place,  at  or  hefore 
some  future  time  mentioned,  or  implied ;  as,  "  I  shall  have 
returned  before  noon." 


*  "  Perfect, "  as  used  above,  denotes  that  the  act  or  state  of  the  verb  is  com- 
pleted, or  finished. 


NUMBER  AND  PERSON.  43 

LESSON     XVIII. 

NUMBER  AND   PERSON. 

Q.  What  is  meant  by  the  number  of  ft  verb  ? 

A.  Number  is  that  property  of  the  verb  which  accommo- 
dates it  to  the  different  numbers  of  the  subject. 

Q.  What  is  meant  by  the  person  of  a  verb  ? 

A.  It  is  that  property  of  the  verb  which  accommodates  it 
to  the  different  persons  of  the  subject. 

Q.  How  many  persons  in  each  number  ?  and  how  many  numbers 
in  each  person  ? 

A.  In  each  number  there  are  three  persons,  and  in  each 
person  there  are  two  numbers ;  thus  : 

Singular.  Plural. 

1st  per.  I  love,  1st  per.  We  love, 

2d  per.    You  love,  2d  per.    You  love, 

3d  per.    He  loves ;  3d  per.    They  love. 

Q.  Does  the  verb  vary  its  form  to  agree  with  its  subject  in  num- 
ber and  person  ? 

A.  It  varies  in  some  of  its  parts  j  but  the  change  is  chiefly 
confined  to  the  second  and  third  persons  singular  of  the  pres- 
ent tense  of  the  indicative  mood,  and  to  the  auxiliaries  has 
and  hast  of  the  perfect  tense. 

Q.  When  the  verb  is  varied,  how  is  the  second  person  singular 
formed  ? 

A.  By  adding  st,  if  the  verb  ends  in  e,  or  est,  if  it  does 
not  end  in  c,  to  the  first  person ;  as,  I  see,  Thou  seest',  I  f/Of 
Thou  (/oest )  I  lend,  Thou  lendest. 

Q.  How  is  the  third  person  formed? 

A.  By  adding  s  or  cs;  as,  I  go,  You  go.  He  ffoes',  I  lendy 
He  lends. 


44  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

LESSON    XIX. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Q.  What  is  a  participle  ? 

A.  A  participle  is  a  part  of  the  verb,  and  partakes  partly 
of  the  properties  of  verbs,  and  partly  of  those  of  adjectives; 
as,  "  John  is  reading.^' 

Q.  How  do  participles  resemble  verbs  ? 

A.  In  expressing  the  action,  being,  or  state  of  the  verb. 

Q.  How  do  they  resemble  adjectives  ? 

A.  In  qualifying  nouns.  It  should  be  remembered  that 
adjectives  do  not  affirm^  but  assume,  the  action  which  they 
express. 

Q.  How  many  participles  are  there  ? 

A.  Two  :  the  present  and  the  perfect ;  as,  running,  having 
run. 

Q.  What  tenses  do  these  two  participles  correspond  to? 

A.  To  the  present  and  perfect  tenses  in  each  of  the  three 
divisions  of  time. 

Q.  How  many  forms  have  the  participles  of  a  transitive  verb  ? 

A.  Two  :  an  active  and  a  passive. 

EXAMPLES. 
ACTIVE.  PASSIVE. 

Present.     Loving,  Loved  or  being  loved. 

Perfect.      Having  loved,  Having  been  loved. 

Note. — Thougli  there  are  but  two  distinct  participles,  there  are  three  forms 
called  participles :  the  present,  past,  and  perfect. 

Q.  When  is  {\i& past  participle  used? 

A.  It  is  never  used  except  in  combination  with  some  part 
of  have,  to  form  the  perfect  tenses  ',  as,  have  loved,  had  loved, 
to  have  loved,  having  loved. 

Q.  To  what  verbs  does  it  belong. 

A.  To  all  verbs — both  transitive  and  intransitive. 

Q.  With  what  is  it  identical  in  form  ? 

A.  With  the  present  participle  of  the  passive  form. 
Note. — Intransitive  verbs  have  no  passive  participle. 


PARTICIPLES.  45 

Q.  What  does  the  present  active  participle  denote  ? 

A.  It  denotes  an  action  or  state  present  but  not  completed 
at  the  time  denoted  by  the  principal  verb ;  as,  '^  1  saw  him 
ru7i)unr/." 

Q.   What  does  the  present  passive  participle  denote  ? 

A.  The  reception  of  an  action,  which  is  present  at  the 
time  indicated  by  the  principal  verb;  as,  ^^Hc  runs,  viewed 
by  all.'' 

Q.  What  does  the  perfect  active  participle  denote  ? 

A.  An  action  or  state  past  and  completed  at  the  time  de- 
noted by  the  principal  verb ;  as,  ^^Having  accomplished  his 
desire,  he  icent  away.'' 

Q.  What  does  the  perfect  passive  participle  denote  ? 

A.  The  reception  of  an  act  past  and  completed  at  the  time 
denoted  by  the  principal  verb ;  as,  "  Having  been  whijiped  at 
school,  he  ran  away." 

Q.  How  is  the  present  active  participle  formed  ? 

A,  From  the  simple  form  of  the  verb  by  suffixing  ing  ;  as, 
run^  running  ;  love^  loving. 

Q.  How  is  the  present  passive  participle  formed  ? 

A.  By  adding  d  or  ed  to  the  simple  form  of  the  verb,  or 
by  using  ^^  being ^^  with  the  past  tense  of  the  verb;  as  love, 
loved,  or  being  loved. 

Q.  How  is  tlie  perfect  active  participle  formed  ? 

A.  By  using  *'  having  "  with  the  past  tense  of  the  verb ; 
as,  having  loved. 

Q.  How  is  the  perfect  passive  participle  formed  ? 

A.  By  using  ^^  having  been"  with  the  past  tense  of  the 
verb ;  as.  Having  been  loved. 

Note  I.— When  participles  lose  the  quality  of  time,  they  are  called  partici- 
pial adjectives. 

Note  II.— Participles  are  frequently  used  as  nouns— such  arc  called  partici- 
pial or  verbal  nouns. 


46 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


LESSON     XX. 

CLASSES    OF   VERBS. 

Q.  How  are  verbs  divided  with  respect  to  their  form  ? 

A.  Into  regular  J  irregular  j  redundant,  and  defective. 

REGULAR  VERBS. 

Q.  What  is  a  regular  verb  ? 

A.  One  that  forms  its  past  tense  and  past  participle  by  the 
additiuu  of  d  or  ed  to  the  present;  as,  lovCj  loved. 

IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

Q.  What  is  an  irregular  verb  ? 

A.  One  that  does  not  form  its  past  tense  and  past  partici- 
ple by  the  addition  of  d  or  ed  to  the  present;  as,  iwy, 
bought. 

The  following  list  contains  the  principal  irregular  verbs, 
with  their  principal  parts : 


Presents 

Past. 

Perfect  Participle. 

Abide, 

Abode, 

Abode. 

Am, 

Was, 

Been. 

Arise, 

Arose, 

Arisen. 

Awake, 

Awoke,  E. 

AAvaked. 

Bear,  (to 

bring  forth,) 

Bore, 

Born. 

Bear,  (to 

carry,) 

Bore, 

Borne. 

Beat, 

Beat, 

Beaten,  beat. 

Begin, 

Began, 

Begun. 

Bend, 

Bent,  R. 

Bent. 

Bereave, 

Bereft,  R. 

Bereft,  R. 

Beseech, 

Besought, 

Besought. 

Behold, 

Beheld, 

Beheld. 

Become, 

Became, 

Become. 

Befall, 

Befell, 

Befallen. 

Bid, 

Bid,  bade. 

Bidden,  bid. 

CLASSES  OP   VERBS. 


47 


Preeent. 

Fast. 

Perfect  Participle. 

Bind, 

Bound, 

Bound. 

Bite, 

Bit, 

Bitten,  bit. 

Bleed, 

Bled, 

Bled. 

Break, 

Broke, 

Broken. 

Breed, 

Bred, 

Bred. 

Blow, 

Blew, 

Blown. 

Bring, 

Brought, 

Brought. 

Build, 

Built,  R. 

Built. 

Burn, 

Burnt,  R. 

Burnt,  R. 

Burst, 

Burst, 

Burst. 

Buy, 

Bought, 

Bought. 

Cast, 

Cast, 

Cast. 

Catch, 

Caught,  R, 

Caught,  R. 

Chide, 

Chid, 

Chidden,  chid. 

Choose, 

Chose, 

Chosen. 

Cleave,  (to  split,) 

Clove,  cleft, 

Cloven. 

Cling, 

Clung, 

Clung. 

Clothed, 

Clad,  R. 

Clad,  R. 

Come, 

Came, 

Come. 

Cost, 

Cost, 

Cost. 

Creep, 

Crept, 

Crept. 

Crow, 

Crew, 

Crowed. 

Cut, 

Cut, 

Cut. 

Dare,  (to  venture,) 

Durst, 

Dared. 

Deal, 

Dealt,  R. 

Dealt,  R. 

Dig, 

Dug,  R. 

Dug,  R. 

Do, 

Did, 

Done. 

Draw, 

Drew, 

Drawn. 

Drink, 

Drank, 

Drunk,  drank. 

Drive, 

Drove, 

Driven. 

Dwell, 

Dwelt,  R. 

Dwelt,  R. 

Eat, 

Ate,  eat, 

Eaten. 

Fall, 

Fell, 

Fallen. 

Feed, 

Fed, 

Fed. 

Feel, 

Felt, 

Felt. 

Fight, 

Fought, 

Fought. 

Find, 

Found, 

Found. 

Flee, 

Fled, 

Fled. 

4« 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


Fresent. 

Paaf. 

Perfect  Participle. 

Fling, 

Flung, 

Flung. 

Fly, 

Flew, 

Flown. 

Forbear, 

Forbore, 

Forborne. 

Forsake, 

Forsook, 

Forsaken. 

Forget, 

Forgot, 

Forgotten,  forgot 

Freeze, 

Froze, 

Frozen. 

Freight, 

Freighted, 

Fraught,  R. 

Get, 

Got, 

Gotten,  got. 

Gild, 

Gilt,  R. 

Gilt,  R. 

Gird, 

Girt,  R. 

Girt,  R. 

Give, 

Gave, 

Given. 

Go, 

Went, 

Gone. 

Grind, 

Ground, 

Ground. 

Grow, 

Grew, 

Grown. 

Hang, 

Hung, 

Hung. 

Have, 

Had, 

Had. 

Hear, 

Heard, 

Heard. 

Hew, 

Hewed, 

Hewn. 

Hide, 

Hid, 

Hidden. 

Hit, 

Hit, 

Hit. 

Hold, 

Held,               * 

Held. 

Hurt, 

Hurt, 

Hurt. 

Keep, 

Kept, 

Kept. 

Kneel, 

Knelt,  R. 

Knelt,  R. 

Know, 

Knew, 

Known. 

Lade, 

Laded, 

Laden. 

Lay, 

Laid, 

Laid. 

Lead, 

Led, 

Led. 

Lend, 

Lent, 

Lent. 

Let, 

Let, 

Let. 

Lie,  (to  recline,) 

Lay, 

Lain. 

Light, 

Lit,  R. 

Lit,  R. 

Lose, 

Lost, 

Lost. 

Make, 

Made, 

Made. 

Mean, 

Meant, 

Meant. 

Meet, 

Met, 

Met. 

Mow, 

Mowed,  , 

Mown,  R. 

Pay, 

Paid, 

Paid. 

CLASSES   OF   VERBS. 


49 


Present. 
Put, 
Quit, 
Read, 
Rend, 
Rid, 
Ride, 
Ring, 
Rise, 
Rive, 
Run, 
Saw, 
See, 
Say, 
Seek, 
Seethe, 
Sell, 
Send, 
Sit, 
Sit, 

Shake, 
Shave, 
Shed, 
Shine, 
Shoe, 
Shoot, 
Show, 
Shred, 
Shrink, 
Shut, 
Sing, 
Sink, 
Slay, 
Sleep, 
Slid, 
Sling, 
Slink, 
Slit, 
Smite, 


Past. 

Past  Participle. 

Put, 

Put. 

Quit,  R. 

Quit,  R. 

Read, 

Read. 

Rent, 

Rent. 

Rid, 

Rid. 

Rode. 

Ridden,  rode. 

Rang,  rung. 

Rung. 

Rose, 

Risen. 

Rived, 

Riven. 

Ran, 

Run. 

Sawed, 

Sawn. 

Saw, 

Seen. 

Said, 

Said. 

Sought, 

Sought. 

Sod,  R. 

Sodden. 

Sold, 

Sold. 

Sent, 

Sent. 

Set, 

Set. 

Sat, 

Sat. 

Shook, 

Shaken. 

Shaved, 

Shaven,  R. 

Shed, 

Shed. 

Shone, 

Shone. 

Shod, 

Shod. 

Shot, 

Shot. 

Showed, 

Shown. 

Shred, 

Shred. 

Shrunk,  shrank, 

Shrunk. 

Shut, 

Shut. 

Sang,  sung, 

Sung. 

Sunk,  sank. 

Sunk. 

Slew, 

Slain. 

Slept, 

Slept. 

Slide, 

Slidden,  slid. 

Slung, 

Slung. 

Slunk, 

Slunk. 

Slit, 

Slit,  R. 

Smote, 

Smitten,  smit. 

m 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


Present. 

Past, 

Past  Participle. 

Sow,  (to  scatter,) 

Sowed, 

Sown,  R. 

Speak, 

Spoke, 

Spoken. 

Speed, 

Sped, 

Sped. 

Spend, 

Spent, 

Spent. 

Spell, 

Spelt,  R. 

Spelt,  R. 

Spin, 

Spun, 

Spun. 

Spit, 

Spit, 

Spit. 

Spread, 

Spread, 

Spread. 

Spring, 

Sprang,  sprtiiig, 

Sprung. 

Stand, 

Stood, 

Stood. 

Steal, 

Stole, 

Stolen. 

Stick, 

Stuck, 

Stuck. 

Sting, 

Stung, 

Stung. 

Stride, 

Strode,  strid» 

Stridden. 

Struck, 

Struck, 

Struck,  stricken. 

String, 

Strung, 

Strung. 

Strive, 

Strove, 

Striven. 

Strew, 

Strowed, 

Strown. 

Swear, 

Swore, 

Sworn. 

Sweat. 

Sweat,  R. 

Sweat,  R. 

Sweep, 

Swept, 

Swept. 

Swell, 

Swelled, 

Swollen,  R. 

Swim, 

Swam,  swum, 

Swum. 

Swing, 

Swung, 

Swung. 

Take, 

Took, 

Taken. 

Teach, 

Taught, 

Taught. 

Tear, 

Tore, 

Torn. 

Tell, 

Told, 

Told. 

Think, 

Thought, 

Thought. 

Thrive, 

Throve^ 

Thriven. 

Throw, 

Threw> 

Thrown. 

Thrust, 

Thrust, 

Thrust. 

Tread, 

Trod, 

Trodden,  or  trod. 

Wax, 

Waxed, 

Waxen,  R. 

Wear, 

Wore,    • 

Worn. 

Weave, 

Wove, 

Woven. 

Weep, 

Wept, 

Wept. 

Wet, 

Wet,  R. 

Wet,  R. 

CLASSES   OF   VERBS. 


51 


Past 

Past  Participle. 

Whet,  R. 

Whet,  11. 

Won, 

Won. 

Wound, 

Wound. 

Wrought, 

Wrought. 

Wrung, 

Wrung. 

Wrote, 

Written. 

Present. 
Whet, 
Win, 
Wind, 
Work, 
Wring, 
Write, 

Note.— The  "  R"  placed  after  some  of  the  preceding  words,  indicates  that  they 
may  be  rt-gular. 

REDUNDANT   TERES. 

Q.  What  is  a  redundant  verb  ? 

A.  One  that  forms  its  past  tense  or  past  participle  in  two 
ways ;  or  one  that  is  both  regular  and  irregular ;  as  gild,  giltj 
or  gilded. 

DEFECTIVE   VERBS. 

Q.  What  is  a  defective  verb  ? 
A.  One  that  is  wanting  in  some  of  its  tenses. 
Q.  Can  you  name  the  defective  verbs  ? 

A.  They  are  beware,  qtioth,  ought,  and  the  auxiliaries,  ex- 
cept do,  he  and  have. 


AUXILIARY   VERBS. 

Q.  What  is  an  auxiliary  verb? 

A.  One  that  is  used  in  forming  the  modes  and  tenses  of 
other  verbs. 

Q.  Will  you  name  the  auxiliary  verbs  ? 

A.  They  are  do,  he,  have,  shall,  will,  may,  can,  and  must, 
with  their  variations. 

Q.  Are  do,  be  and  have  always  auxiliary  verbs  ? 

A.  They  are  not;  they  are  frequently  used  as  principal 
verbs. 


52  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.         ^ 

LESSON    XXI. 

FORMS    OF    THE  VERB. 

Q.  How  many  "ways  are  there  of  using  verbs  in  the  active  voice  ? 
A.  Three:  called  the  common^  the  emphaticj  and  the^ro- 
gressive  forms. 

COMMON   FORM. 

Q.  How  are  the  tenses  of  the  common  form  formed  ? 

A.  I. — In  the  indicative  mode,  which  has  six  tenses  : 

1.  The  present  is  the  first  form  of  the  verb;  as,  love. 

2.  The  past  is  the  second  form  of  the  verb ;  as,  loved. 

3.  The  future  is  formed  by  joining  to  the  first  form  of  the 
verb,  the  auxiliary  shall  or  will ;  as,  will  love. 

4.  The  present  perfect  is  formed  by  joining  the  present  of 
have  to  the  past  participle  of  the  verb )  as,  have  loved. 

5.  The  past  perfect  is  formed  by  joining  the  past  of  have 
to  the  past  participle  of  the  verb ;  as,  had  loved, 

6.  The  future  perfect  is  formed  by  joining  the  future  of 
have  to  the  past  participle ;  as,  shall  have  loved. 

II. — In  the  potential  mode,  which  has  four  tenses  : 

1.  The  present  is  formed  by  joining  the  present  of  the 
auxiliary  may,  can,  or  mustj  to  the  first  form  of  the  verb ;  as, 
may  love. 

2.  The  past  is  formed  by  joining  the  past  of  mai/,  can, 
must,  shall,  or  will,  to  the  first  form  of  the  verb ;  as,  might 
love. 

3.  The  present  perfect  is  formed  by  joining  the  present 
potential  of  have  to  the  past  participle  of  the  verb ;  as,  may 
have  loved. 

4.  The  past  perfect  is  formed  by  joining  the  past  poten- 
tial of  have  to  the  past  participle  of  the  verb ;  as,  might  have 
loved. 


FORMS   OF   THE   VERB.  53 

III. — In  the  imperative  mode,  which  has  one  tense : 
1.  The  present  is  the  lirst  form  of  the  verb,  generally 
without  an  expressed  subject;  as,  love. 

IV. — In  the  infinitive  mode,  which  has  two  tenses : 

1.  The  present  is  the  first  form  of  the  verb  joined  to  **  to  ;  " 
as,  to  love. 

2.  The  present  perfect  is  formed  by  joining  the  present 
infinitive  of  have  to  the  past  participle  of  the  verb;  as,  to 
have  loved. 

V. — In  the  participles  : 

1.  The  present  participle  is  formed  by  adding  in(j  to  the 
first  form  of  the  verb ;  as,  loving. 

2.  The  past  participle  is  formed,  in  regular  verbs,  by  ad- 
ding d  or  ed  to  the  first  form  of  the  verb ;  as,  loved. 

3.  The  perfect  participle  is  formed  by  joining  the  present 
participle  of  have  to  the  past  participle  of  the  verb ;  as  having 
loved. 

EMPHATIC    FORM. 

Q.  To  what  modes  does  the  emphatic  form  belong? 

A.  To  the  indicative  and  imperative  of  the  active  voice ; 
it  is  also  confined  to  the  present  and  past  tenses. 

Q.  How  is  it  formed  ? 

A.  By  joining  the  auxiliary  do  to  the  first  form  of  the 
verb  for  the  present  tense,  and  did  to  the  same  for  the  past 
tense ;  as,  do  love  ;  did  love. 

PROGRESSIVE   FORM. 

Q.  How  is  the  progressive  form  formed  ? 

A.  It  is  the  present  participle  of  the  verb  added  to  the 
common   form  of  the  verb  to  be;  as,  am  loving ;  have  been 
loving. 
Note.— To  the  above  may  be  added  the  passive  form. 


64 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAU. 


LESSON     XXII. 

CONJUGATION. 

Q.  What  is  meant  by  the  conjugation  of  a  verb  ? 

A.  A  regular  arrangement  of  its  several  forms,  moods, 
tenses,  numbers,  2i\idi  persons. 

The  following  is  the  conjugation  of  the  irregular  verb 
To  Be: 

INDICATIVE    MOOD. 


ABSOLUTE  TENSES. 


Pre  .sent  Tense. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

1. 

I  am. 

We  are. 

2. 

Thou  art.* 

You  or  ye  are. 

3. 

He  is. 

They  are.f 

Singular. 

Past  Tense. 

riural. 

1. 

I  was. 

We  were. 

2. 

Thou  wast. 

You  or  ye  were. 

3. 

He  was. 
Singular. 

Future 

Tense. 

They  were. 
Plural. 

1. 

I  shall  or  will  be. 

We  shall  or  will  be. 

2, 

Thou  shalt  or  wilt  be. 

You  or  ye  shall  or  will  be. 

3. 

He 

shall  or  will  be. 

They  shall  or  will  be. 

RELATIVE 

TENSES. 

Singular. 

Present  Perfect. 

Plural, 

1. 

I  hi 

ave  been. 

We  have  been. 

2. 

Thou  hast  been. 

You  or  ye  have  been. 

3. 

He  has  been. 

They  have  been. 

*  Thou  is  used  in  the  biblical  or  poetic  style.  You  ia  used  in  the  singular,  in 
the  common  style ;  as,  I  am,  you  arc,  he  i.s. 

t  The  pupil  should  be  required  to  conjugate  conditionally  :  as,  if  I  am,  if 
thou  art,  if  he  is,  d-c. 


CONJUGATION.  55 

Past  Perfect. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  had  been.  We  had  been. 

2.  Thou  hadst  been.  You  or  ye  had  been. 

3.  He  had  been.  They  had  been. 

Future  Perfect. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  have  been.  We  shall  have  been. 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  been.  You  or  ye  will  have  been. 

3.  He  will  have  been.  They  will  have  been. 

POTENTIAL   MOOD. 

ABSOLUTE  TENSES. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  be.  We  may  be. 

2.  Thou  mayst  be.  You  or  ye  may  be. 

3.  He  may  be.  They  may  be.* 

Past  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might  be.  We  might  be. 

2.  Thou  mightst  be.  You  or  ye  might  be. 

3.  He  might  be.  They  might  be. 

EELATIVE     TENSES. 

Present  Perfect. 

Singular.  .  Plural. 

1.  I  may  have  been.  We  may  have  been. 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been.  You  or  ye  may  have  been. 

3.  He  may  have  been.  They  may  have  been. 

Past  Perfect. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might  have  been.  We  might  have  been. 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  been.  You  or  ye  might  have  been. 

3.  He  might  have  been.  They  might  have  been. 

Conjugated  conditionally;  as,  If  I  may  be,  If  thou  mayst  be,  IJ  he  may  be,  etc. 


66  ENGLISH   GRAMiMAR. 

IMPERATIVE     MOOD. 

I*resent  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

Be ;  or,  Be  thou.  Be  you  or  ye. 

INFINITIVE    MOOD. 

Present  Tense,  To  be. 

Present  Perfect^  To  have  been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present  J  Being. 

Past,  Been. 

Perfect,  Haying  been. 

Q.  One  conditional  form  of  the  present  tense  of  the  indicative 
mood  is,  "If  I  am,"  etc.     Is  there  any  other? 
A.  There  is  :  namely — 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  be.  If  we  be. 

2.  If  you  be.  If  you  be. 

3.  If  he  be.  If  they  be. 

Q.  Is  there  another  conditional  form  for  the  past  tense  ? 
A.  Yes  :  it  is — 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  were.  If  we  were. 

2.  If  you  were.  If  you  were. 

3.  If  he  were.  If  they  were. 

SYNOPSIS. 

Q.  What  is  the  synopsis  of  a  verb  ? 

A.  It  is  a  short  view  of  the  verb,  showing  its  forms  in  the 
moods  and  tenses  in  one  number  and  person. 

The  following  is  a  synopsis,  first  person  singular,  of  Do : 

INDICATIVE    MOOD. 
ABSOLUTE    TENSES. 

I  do.  I  did.  I  will  do. 

RELATIVE    TENSES. 

I  have  done.  I  had  done.  I  shall  have  done. 

Note. — Let  the  pupil  write  a  synopsis  of  the  second  and  third  persons  in  the 
same  manner,  and  complete  the  synopsis  in  all  of  the  moods. 


CONJUGATION. 


57 


The  regular  verb  love  is  thus  conjugated : 

Note. — The  four  forms  are  arranged  together.    The  pronouns  arc  placed  at 
the  top  of  the  columns.    Kead  downwards,  or  across. 

INDICATIVE    MOOD. 


ABSOLUTE    TENSES. 

Present  Tense. 

1st.  Singular. 
I 

2d.  Singular. 
You 

3d.  Singular. 
He,  she,  it 

Com.    love. 

love, 

loves. 

Emp.    do  love, 

do  love. 

does  love. 

Prog,  am  loving. 
Pas.     am  loved, 

are  loving, 
are  loved, 

is  loving, 
is  loved. 

1st.  Plural. 

2d.  Plural. 

3d.  Plural. 

We 

Com.    love, 

You 
love. 

They 
love. 

Emp.   do  love, 

do  love, 

do  love. 

Prog,  are  loving, 
Pas.     are  loved, 

are  loving, 
are  loved, 

Past  Tense. 

are  loving. 
are  loved. 

1st.  Singular. 
I 

2d.  Singular. 
You 

3d.  Singular. 
He,  she,  it 

Com.    loved, 

loved. 

loved. 

Emp.   did  love. 

did  love. 

did  love. 

Prog,  was  loving. 
Pas.     was  loved, 

were  loving, 
were  loved, 

was  loving, 
was  loved. 

1st.  Plural. 

2d.  Plural. 

3d.  Plural. 

We 
Com.    loved, 

You 
loved, 

They 

loved. 

Emp.   did  love, 

did  love. 

did  love. 

Prog,  were  loving. 
Pas.    were  loved, 

were  loving, 
were  loved. 

Future  Tense. 

were  loving, 
were  loved. 

1st.  Singular. 
I 

2d.  Singular. 
You 

3d.  Singular. 
He,  she,  it 

Com.    will  love, 

will  love, 

will  love. 

Prog,   will  be  loving. 

will  be  loving, 

will  be  loving. 

Pas.     will  be  loved, 

will  be  loved. 

will  be  loved. 

5» 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


1st.  Plural. 
We 
Com.    -will  love, 
Prog,   will  be  loving. 
Pas.     will  be  loved, 


2d.  Plural 
You 

■will  love, 
"will  be  loviug, 
will  be  loved, 

RELATIVE    TENSES. 

Present  Perfect  Tense. 


3d.  Plural. 
They 

will  love, 
will  be  loving, 
will  be  loved. 


1st.  Singular. 

2d.  Singular. 

3d.  Singular. 

I 

You 

He,  she,  it 

Com. 

have  loved, 

have  loved. 

has  loved. 

Prog. 

have  been  loving. 

have  been  loving. 

has  been  loving. 

Pas. 

have  been  loved. 

have  been  loved. 

has  been  loved. 

Ist.  Plural. 

2cl.  Plural. 

3d.   Plural. 

We 

You 

They 

Com. 

have  loved. 

have  loved. 

have  loved. 

Prog. 

have  been  loving, 

have  been  loving, 

have  been  loving, 

Pas. 

have  been  loved, 

have  been  loved, 
Past  Perfect  Tense. 

h(^ve  been  loved. 

1st.  Singular. 

2d.  Singular. 

8d.  Singular. 

I 

You 

He,  she,  it 

Com. 

had  loved, 

had  loved, 

had  loved. 

Prog. 

had  been  loving, 

had  been  loving. 

had  been  loving. 

Pas. 

had  been  loved. 

had  been  loved, 

had  been  loved. 

1st.  Plural. 

2d.  Plural. 

3d.  Plural. 

We 

You 

They 

Com. 

had  loved. 

had  loved. 

had  loved. 

Prog. 

had  been  loving. 

had  been  loving. 

had  been  loving. 

Pas. 

had  been  loved, 

had  been  loved, 

had  been  loved. 

Futiire  Perfect  Tense. 

Ist.  Singular. 

2d.  Singular. 

8d.  Singular. 

I 

You 

He,  she,  it 

Com. 

will  have  loved. 

will  have  loved. 

will  have  loved. 

Prog. 

will  have  been 

will  have  been 

will  have  been 

loving, 

loving, 

loving. 

Pqs. 

will  have  been 

will  have  been 

will  have  been 

loved. 

loved, 

loved. 

CONJUGATION. 


59 


let.  Plural. 
We 
Com.  will  have  loved, 
Froff.  will  have  been 

loving. 
Pas.    will  have  been 
loved, 


Ist.  Singular. 

I 
Com.  can  love, 
Proff.  can  be  loving, 
Paa.    can  be  loved, 
Ist.  Plural. 

We 
Com.  can  love, 
Proff.  can  be  loving, 
Pas.    can  be  loved, 

Ist.  Singular. 

I 
Com.  might  love, 
Pro^.  might  be  loving, 
Pas.    might  be  loved, 
Ist.  Plural. 

We 
Com.  might  love, 
Proff.  might  be  loving. 
Pas.    might  be  loved, 


2d.  Plural. 
You 
will  have  loved, 
will  have  been 

loving, 
will  have  been 
loved, 

POTENTIAL   MOOD. 

ABSOLUTE    TENSES. 

Present   Tenso. 
2d.  Singular. 
You 
can  love, 
can  be  loving, 
can  be  loved, 
2d.  Plural. 
You 
can  love, 
can  be  loving, 
can  be  loved, 

Past  Tense. 

2d.  Singular. 

You 
might  love, 
might  be  loving, 
might  be  loved, 

2d.  Plural. 

You 
might  love, 
might  be  loving, 
might  be  loved, 


1st.  Singular. 
I 
Com.  may  have  loved. 


RELATIVE    TENSES. 

Present  Perfect  Tense. 
2d.  Singular, 
You 
may  have  loved. 


8d.  Plural. 
They 
will  have  loved. 
will  have  been 

loving, 
will  have  been 

loved. 


3d.  Singular. 
He,  she,  it 
can  love, 
can  be  loving, 
can  be  loved. 

3d.  Plural. 

They 
can  love, 
can  be  loving. 
can  be  loved. 

3d.  Singular. 

He,  she,  it 
might  love, 
might  be  loving, 
might  be  loved. 

3d.  Plural. 
They 
might  love, 
might  be  loving, 
might  be  loved. 


3d.  Singular. 

He,  she,  it 

may  have  loved. 


m                                      ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Prog,  may  have  been 
loving, 

Pas.    may  have  been 
loved, 

may  have  been 

loving, 
may  have  been 

loved. 

may  have  been 

loving, 
may  have  been 

loved. 

1st.  Plural. 

2d.  Plural. 

3d.  Plural. 

We 

Com.  may  have  loved. 
Prog,  may  have  been 

loving. 
Pas.    may  have  been 

loved, 

You 

may  have  loved, 
may  have  been 

loving, 
may  have  been 

loved, 

They 

may  have  loved, 
may  have  been 

loving, 
may  have  been 

loved. 

Past  Perfect  Tense. 

1st  Singular. 

I 

Com.  might  have  loved, 
Prog,  might  have  been 

loving. 
Pas.     might  have  been 

loved, 

2d.  Singular. 

You 
might  have  loved, 
might  have  been 

loving, 
might  have  been 

loved, 

Zd.  Singular. 

He,  she,  it 
might  have  loved, 
might  have  been 

loving, 
might  have  been 

loved. 

1st.  Plural. 

2d.  Plural. 

Zd.  Plural. 

We 

Com.  might  have  loved. 
Prog,  might  have  been 

loving. 
Pas.    might  have  been 

loved, 

You 

might  have  loved, 
might  have  been 

loving, 
might  have  been 

loved, 

They 

might  have  loved, 
might  have  been 

loving, 
might    have    been 

loved. 

IMPERATIVE   MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

2d  Singular.                                             2d  Plural. 
Com.    Love,  or  love  thou,                   Love,  or  love  you  or  ye, 
Emp.    Do  thou  love.                             Do  you  6r  ye  love. 
Prog.   Be  thou  loving.                          Be  you  or  ye  loving. 
Pas.     Be  thou  loved.                          Be  you  or  ye  loved. 

INFINITIVE    MOOD. 

ABSOLUTE    TENSE. 

Present  Tense. 

Com.    To  love, 
Prog.    To  be  loving, 
Pas.     To  be  loved. 

RELATIVE   TENSE. 

Present  Perfect  Tense. 

Com.    To  have  loved. 
Prog.    To  have  been  loving, 
Pas.     To  have  been  loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. 

Com.    Loving, 

Prog.    Being  loved, 

Pas.     Being  loved,  or  Loved. 

Past. 

Loved,  (used  in  combination.) 

Perfect. 

Com.    Having  loved, 
Prog.  Having  been  loving, 
Pas.     Having  been  loved. 


61 


LESSON    XXIII. 

Q.  "What  is  a  sentence  ? 

A.  A  sentence  is  a  collection  of  words  so  arranged  as  to 
express  a  thought  j  as,  ^'  John  laugJis/' 

Q.  How  many  parts  of  speech  are  necessary  in  the  construction 
of  a  simple  sentence  ? 


02  ENGLISH   GEAMMAR. 

A.  Two  :  a  noun  and  a  verb  ;  as,  <<  Julia  plays."  In  this 
sentence  "Julia''  is  a  noun,  and  <'  plays  "  a  verb. 

Q.  How  many  parts  of  speech  may  be  used  in  a  sentence  ? 

A.  All  of  the  eight  parts  of  speech  may  be,  and  often  are, 
used  in  the  same  sentence. 

Q.  What  is  the  subject  of  a  sentence? 

A.  That  of  which  something  is  affirmed ;  as,  "  The  dog 
harJcs."  Here,  ^'clo(/''  is  the  subject,  because  it  is  that  of 
which  something  is  affirmed,  or  declared. 

Q.  What  is  the  predicate  ? 

A.  That  which  is  affirmed  of  the  subject.  Thus,  in  the 
sentence,  "The  dog  barks,"  "barks'*  is  the  predicate,  be- 
cause it  affirms  something  of  the  subject. 

Q.     What  is  the  order  for  parsing  a  verb  ? 

A.  Tell,  1.  What  part  of  speech  and  why  ? 

2.  Regular  or  irregular.     Why  ? 

3.  Name  the  principal  parts. 

4.  Transitive  or  intransitive.     Why  ? 

5.  Voice.     Why? 

6.  Mood.     Why? 

7.  Tense.     Why? 

8.  Person  and  number.     Why  ? 

7.  Kule. 

If  the  verb  is  in  the  infinitive  mood — 

8.  Depends  on  what  word  ? 

9.  Rule. 

MODELS   FOR   PARSING. 

Ohildren  love  apples. 

Children  is  a  noun — a  name;  common — it  may  be  ap- 
plied to  each  individual  of  a  class  of  objects;  third  person — 
spoken  of;  plural  number — means  more  than  one;  nomina- 
tive case — the  subject  of  the  verb  love,  according  to 

Rule  B.    The  subject  of  a  finite  verb  must  be  in 

THE  nominative  CASE. 


MODELS   FOR   PAUSING.  63 

Love  is  a  verb — a  word  used  to  express  action  ;  regular — 
it  forms  its  past  tense  and  past  participle  by  the  addition  of 
d  to  the  present  J  present  love,  past  loved,  past  participle 
loved)  transitive — requires  the  addition  of  an  object  to  com- 
plete its  meaning;  active  voice — represents  the  subject  as 
acting  J  indicative  mood — simply  declares  a  thing ;  present 
tense — represents  the  action  as  taking  place  now;  third  per- 
son, plural  number — -because  the  subject,  children^  is,  with 
which  it  agrees ;  according  to 

Rule  C. — The  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  nomi- 
native IN  number  and  person. 

Apples  is  a  common  noun  of  the  third  person,  plural  num- 
ber; in  the  objective,  because  it  is  used  to  complete  the 
meaning  of  the  verb  love ;  according  to 

Rule  D. — Transitive  verbs  and  their  participles 
govern  the  objective  case. 

Having  finished  their  tasks,  they  departed  : 

Having  finished  is  a  participle ;  it  partakes  of  the  prop- 
erties of  a  verb  and  adjective;  perfect  active  participle;  de- 
notes an  action  past  and  completed  at  the  time  denoted  by 
the  principal  verb;  it  is  from  the  regular  transitive  verb, 
finish  ;  it  limits  the  pronoun  they. 

Rule. — An  adjective,  or  participle,  agrees  with 
the  noun  which  it  limits. 

Their  is  a  personal  pronoun ;  third  person,  plural  number, 
in  the  possessive  case,  and  limits  the  noun  tasks,  according 
to  Rule  A. 

Tasks  is  a  common  noun ;  third  person,  plural  number,  in 
the  objective  case,  and  governed  by  the  participle,  having 
finished,  according  to  Rule  D. 

They  is  a  personal  pronoun;  third  person,  plural  number, 
and  in  the  nominative  case  to  the  verb  departed,  according 
to  Rule  R. 


M  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Departed  is  a  regular  active  transitive  verb  from  depart; 
present  de^mrty  past  departed,  past  participle  departed;  in 
the  indicative  mood ;  past  tense ;  third  person,  plural 
number,  according  to  Rule  C 

EXERCISE. 

Trees  bear  fruit.  Dogs  bark.  He  studies  grammar.  Learn 
your  lesson.  Come.  Will  she  go  ?  May  Ann  get  my  hat  ? 
Boys  love  to  play.  Jane  can  spin  wool.  William  vrill  fight. 
Cows  give  milk.  He  gave  apples.  Having  walked,  she  was 
fatigued.  Loving  their  children,  parents  protect  them. 
Take  care.  Beware.  Study  economy.  Eternity  awaits  us. 
War  has  commenced.  You  might  have  been  loved.  It 
might  have  been  written.     Love  thou. 


LESSON    XXIV. 

ADJECTIVES. 

Q.  What  is  an  adjective? 

A.  An  adjective  is  a  word  which  directly  modifies  a  sub- 
stantive, either  by  describing  it  or  limiting  its  meaning ;  as 
The  good  boy. 

Q.  How  are  adjectives  divided? 

A.  Into  two  classes — limiting  and  qualifying. 

1. — LIMITING   ADJECTIVES. 

Q.  What  is  a  limiting  adjective? 

A.  A  limiting  adjective  is  a  word  used  to  limit  or  restrict 
the  meaning  of  a  noun ;  as  A  book,  The  man,  Every  horse. 

Q.  How  are  limiting  adjectives  divided  ? 

A.  Into  four  classes :  Articles,  Pronominal  AdjcctiveSj 
Numeral  Adjectives,  and  Circumstantial  Adjectives. 


ADJECTIVES.  65 

ARTICLES. 

Q.  What  is  an  article  ? 

A.  The  limiting  adjectives  the,  and  a  or, an,  are  called 
articles. 

Q.  What  kind  of  an  article  is  the  called,  and  -why  ? 

A.  The  is  called  a  definite  article,  because  it  points  out  or 
restricts  the  meaning  to  some  particular  thing;  as  The  book. 

Q.  What  is  a  or  an  called,  and  why  ? 

A.  A  or  an  is  called  an  indefinite  article,  because  it  docs 
not  point  out  or  restrict  the  meaning  to  any  particular  thing; 
as  A  slate. 

Q.  What  is  the  difference  in  the  use  of  a  or  an  ? 

A.  A  is  used  before  words  beginning  with  a  consonant 
sound;  an  is  used  before  those  beginning  with  a  vowel  sound  ; 
also  before  words  beginning  with  h  and  accented  on  the  second 
syllable ;  as,  a  pig,  an  apple,  an  historical  account,  a  union. 

PRONOMINAL   ADJECTIVES. 

Q,  What  are  pronominal  adjectives  ? 

A.  Those  limiting  adjectives  which  may  represent  a  noun 
when  understood,  without  the  use  of  the  article,  are  called 
pronominal  adjectives;  as.  This  (dog)  belongs  to  him. 

Q.  What  are  the  principal  pronominal  adjectives? 

A.  This,  that,  these,  those,  former,  latter,  which,  ivhat,  each, 
evert/,  either,  neither,  some,  one,  none,  any,  all,  such,  manij, 
much. 

NUMERAL   ADJECTIVES. 

Q.  Wliat  are  numeral  adjectives? 

A.  The  limiting  adjectives  expressing  number,  are  called 
numeral  adjectives  ;  as,  one,  two,  etc. 

Q.  Into  how  many  classes  arc  numeral  adjectives  divided? 
A.  Three  :    Cardinal,  Ordinal,  and  Multiplicative. 
Q.  What  are  the  cardinals  ? 
A.    One,  two,  three,  four,  five,  etc. 
3 


•i  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Q.  What  are  the  ordinals  ? 

A.   First,  second,  third,  fourth,  fifth,  etc. 

Q.  What  are  the  multiplicatives  ? 

A.  Those  limiting  adjectives  which  show  the  number  of 
parts  of  which  a  whole  is  composed,  are  called  multij^lica- 
lives;  as,  single,  double,  triple,  four-fold. 

CIRCUMSTANTIAL   ADJECTIVES. 

Q.  What  are  circumstantial  adjectives  ? 

A.  Those  limiting  adjectives  which  denote  some  circum- 
stance, generally  of  time  or  place ;  as,  an  an  evening  walk,  a 
western  vessel. 

II. — QUALIFYING    ADJECTIVES. 

Q.  What  are  qualifying  adjectives  ? 

A.  They  are  those  adjective  words  which  limit  the  mean- 
ing of  nouns  by  denoting  some  property  or  quality ;  as,  a 
vicious  man  ;  a  merry  child. 

Note.— To  this  class  belong  the  participles,  which  have  the  construction  of 
the  adjective,  and  the  signification  of  the  verb. 

Q.  What  is  meant  by  the  comparison  of  adjectives  ? 

A.  When  different  objects  are  compared  to  each  other,  tho 
adjective  denoting  the  property  by  means  of  which  they  are 
compared,  undergoes  a  change;  this  change  is  called  com- 
parison. 

Q.  How  many  degrees  of  comparison  are  there  ? 

A.  Three :  positive,  comparative,  and  superlative. 

Q.  What  does  the  positive  degree  denote? 

A.  The  positive,  which  is  the  simple  form  of  the  adjec- 
tive, simply  expresses  the  quality  of  an  object,  without  re- 
ferring to  other  degrees  of  the  same  quality  j  as,  sour  milk. 

Q.  What  does  the  comparative  degree  denote? 

A.  That  of  two  objects :  one  possesses  a  quality  in  a 
greater  or  less  degree  than  the  other;  as,  "This  apple  is 
sweeter  than  that." 


ADJECTIVES.  67 

Q.  How  is  the  comparative  of  monosyllables  formed  ? 

A.  By  adding  r  or  er  to  the  positive;  as,  w?j'se,  wiser; 
hiyhy  higher. 

Q.  How  is  the  comparative  of  words  of  more  than  one  syllable 
formed  ? 

A.  By  using  "  ?nore "  or   ''/ess"  with  the  positive;  as, 

pleasant,  more  or  less  2^lcasa7it. 

Q.  When  is  **  more  '*  used  ?     When  *'  less  ?  " 

A.  "  More "  is  used  when  an  increase  of  the  quality  is 
meant ;  "  less  "  when  there  is  a  diminution  of  the  quality. 

Q.  What  does  the  superlative  degree  denote  ? 

A.  The  superlative  shows  that  one  of  several  objects  pos- 
sesses a  quality  in  the  highest  or  lowest  degree,  when  com- 
pared with  all  of  the  others;  as,  ''The  poplar  is  the  tallest 
tree  in  the  yard.'^ 

Q.  How  is  the  superlative  of  monosyllables  formed  ? 

A.  By  adding  st  or  est  to  the  positive ;  as,  long,  longest ; 
wise,  wisest. 

Q.  How  is  the  superlative  of  words  of  more  than  one  syllable 
formed  ? 

A.  By  using  "most"  or  "least"  with  the  positive;  as, 
most  righteous,  or  least  righteous. 

Note.— The  same  distinction  exists  between  *^most"  .'vnd  "feast"  as  between 
••  more  "  and  "  less.''^ 

Q.  Are  any  adjectives  of  more  than  one  syllable  ever  compared 
like  those  of  one  syllable  ? 

A.  Yes :  dissyllables  ending  in  y  or  silent  c,  and  those  ac- 
cented on  the  last  syllable,  are  frequently  compared  like 
monosyllables;  as,  happy,  happier,  happiest;  nolle,  nobler, 
noblest. 

Q.  What  adjectives  are  compared  ? 

A.  All  qualifying  adjectives,  except  those  that  have  in 
themselves  a  superlative  signification ;  as,  extreme,  perfect, 
right,  wrong,  infinite,  ceaseless,  eternal,  etc. 

Note  I.— A  few  words  form  (ho  superlative  by  adding  "most"  to  the  end  of 
the  word ;  as,  uffrrfnost-,  "  nethermost." 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


Note  II.— The  following  adjectives  are  coir 

ipared  irregularly : 

Positive. 

Comparative. 

Superlative, 

Bad,  Evil,  or  ill, 

Worse, 

Worst, 

Good, 

Better, 

Best, 

Little, 

Less, 

Least, 

Much,  or  many, 

More, 

Most, 

Near, 

Nearer, 

Nearest,  or  next, 

Old, 

Older, 

Oldest,  or  eldest. 

Late, 

Later, 

Latest,  or  last. 

Far, 

Farther, 

Farthest. 

Note  III. — The  termination 

,  ish,  denotes  a 

diminution  of  quality ;  as,  ho 

Let  the  pupil  tell  to  what  class  each  of  the  following  adjectives  belong  ; 
also,  compare  those  that  admit  of  comparison. 

The,  good,  those,  hungry,  sleepy,  able,  any,  one,  sixteen, 
old,  large,  greasy,  first,  ugly,  wise,  two-legged,  double- 
handed,  long,  black,  far,  a,  an,  ample,  dizzy,  little,  evil, 
fourth,  much,  round,  perfect,  infinite,  eastern,  turkish,  girl- 
ish, murky. 

Tell  the  degree  of  comparison  of  the  following  adjectives: 

Happiest,  longer,  nethermost,  brackish,  lovely,  most  grace- 
ful, taller,  smoother,  last,  blue,  more  pleasant,  blackest,  om- 
nipotent, boundless,  leafless. 

Q.  AVhat  is  the  order  of  parsing  an  adjective  ? 

A.  Tell,  1.  What  part  of  speech,  and  why? 

2.  Qualifying,  or  limiting,  and  why? 

3.  (If  qualifying,)  the  degree,  and  why  ? 

4.  Compare  it. 

5.  To  what  noun  it  belongs. 

6.  Rule. 

If  it  is  a  limiting  adjective, 

Tell,  3.  What  kind,  and  why? 

4.  To  what  noun  it  belongs. 

5.  Rule. 


ADJECTIVES.  0i 

MODELS  FOR  PARSING  ADJECTIVES. 

The  good  boy  is  industrious. 

Good  is  an  adjective — a  word  used  to  modify  a  nounj 
qualifying — it  expresses  a  quality ;  positive  degree — simply 
expresses  a  quality  without  comparison  ',  positive  good^  com- 
parative better  J  superlative  best ;  it  belongs  to  the  noun  bot/y 
according  to 

Rule  E. — An  adjective,  or  participle,  agrees  with 
the  noun  which  it  limits. 

Industrious  is  an  adjective;  qualifying;  positive  degree ; 
positive  industrious,  comparative  more  industrious,  superla- 
tive fnost  industrious ;  it  belongs  to  the  noun  bo?/,  according 
to  Rule  E. 

The  is  an  adjective — a  word  used  to  limit  a  noun;  limit- 
ing— it  restricts  the  meaning  without  expressing  any  quality; 
article — it  points  out  some  object;  definite  article — points 
out  some  particular  object;  points  out  the  noun  boy,  and 
limits  it  accordinsr  to  Rule  E. 

jHiat  man  is  mean. 

That  is  an  adjective;  limiting  adjective;  pronominal — it 
may  be  used  without  the  noun ;  belongs  to  man  according  to 
Rule  E. 

exercise. 

That  boy  managed  the  vicious  horse.  Your  good  mother 
will  see  your  idle  follies.  This  trifle  makes  much  trouble. 
The  tallest  boy  is  the  best.  Old  men  are  plain.  These 
children  are  agreeable  companions.  One  old  cat  can  eat 
twenty  little  chickens.  An  apple  is  good.  The  black  hen 
troubles  me.  The  rose  is  the  most  beautiful  of  all  flowers. 
One  man  walked  ten  miles.  The  well  is  deep.  The  room  is 
long.     The  sky  is  blue. 


70  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


LESSON     XXV. 

Q.  What  is  an  adverb  ? 

A.  An  adverb  is  a  word  used  to  limit  or  modify  the  mean- 
ing of  a  verb,  participle,  adjective,  or  another  adverb;  as, 
"John  learns  rapidly  J*  "Loving  him  dearly. ^^  "She  is 
very  tall."  "The  bird  sings  very  sweetly. '^  (The  words  in 
italics  are  the  adverbs.  "llapidiy''  modifies  "learns;" 
" dearly/'  "  loving :"  "very,"  " tall ;"  and  "  very,"  " sweetly.") 

NoT«. — Adverbs  sometimes  modify  prepositions;    as,  "He  went  nearly  to 
town."    (Here  "nearly"  modifies  the  preposition  "to.") 

Q.  Into  how  many  classes  may  adverbs  be  divided  ? 

A.  Into  the  following ;  Adverbs  of  time,  place,  number, 
degree,  and  manner. 

Q.  What  are  adverbs  of  time  ? 

A.  Those  adverbs  that  answer  to  the  question.  When  ?  or 
How  often  ?     They  embrace  the  following  divisions  : 

1.  Time  present ;  as,  noiOy  to-day,  instantly. 

2.  Time  past ;  txs,  yesterday,  lately,  already. 

3.  Time  to  come;  as,  hereafter,  to-morrow,  soon. 

4.  Time  absolute;  as,  always^  ever,  never. 

5.  Time  relative  ;  as  when,  then,  before,  after. 

6.  Time  repeated;  as,  oft,  often,  repeatedly. 
Q.  What  are  adverbs  of  place  ? 

A.  Such  as  answer  to  the  questions,  Where?  Whither? 
Whence  ? 

Q.  What  do  those  denote,  which  are  indicated  by  the  question 
"Where?" 

A.  They  denote  rest  in  a  place ;  as,  here,  there. 

Q.  Indicated  by  "Whither?" 

A.  They  denote  motion  to  or  towards  a  place;  as,  hither j 
thither. 


ADVERBS.  71 

Q    Indicated  by  "Whence  ?" 

A.  Motion  from  a  place  ;  as,  whence,  thence. 

Q.  What  are  adverbs  of  number  ? 

A.  Such  as  answer  to  the  question,  "Aoio  often  T^  as,  once^ 
twicCf  thrice. 

Q.  What  are  adverbs  of  degree  ? 

A.  Such  as  answer  to  the  question,  *^how  much?^*  or  ^^how 
little  f^*  as,  much,  little,  very,  too. 

Q.  What  are  adverbs  of  manner  ? 

A.  Such  as  generally  answer  to  the  question,  ^^howT^  as, 
"  He  did  the  work  well^ 

Q.  How  many  general  divisions  of  this  class  are  there  ? 

A.  Two: 

1.  Those*  that  affect  the  manner  or  quality  of  the  action 
or  state ;  as,  "  He  learns  rpaidly^ 

2.  Those  that  affect  the  manner  of  the  assertion;  ''He  will 
surely  come.'' 

COMPARISON   OP  ADVERBS. 

Q.  Are  adverbs  ever  compared  ? 
A.  Some  adverbs  are  compared. 
Q.  What  adverbs  are  compared  ? 

A.  Those  that  from  their  nature,  are  capable  of  expressing 
their  meaning  in  different  degrees ;  as,  soon,  sooner,  soonest. 

Note. — Some  adverbs  of  all  the  classes  are  compared,  but  those  of  manner 
and  degree  are  those  chiefly  compared. 

Q.  How  many  degrees  of  comparison  have  adverbs  ? 
A.  Three  :  Positive,  Comparative,  and  Superlative.     These 
correspond  to  the  comparison  of  the  adjective. 

*  Note  1.— Most  of  this  class  of  adverbs  are  derived  from  adjectives,  by  add- 
ing the  syllable  "ly" — which  is  a  contraction  oCHikc;  as,  mnuly,  for  manlike. 

Note  2. — Two  or  more  words,  or  even  subordinate  sentences,  may  bo  used  aa 
adverbs ;  as.  Ho  came  in  haste.  When  i/ou  came,  I  was  sleeping.  The  words, 
♦'  in  haste,"  and  "  when  you  came,"  are  adverbs. 


72  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Q.  In  how  many  ways  are  adverbs  compared  ? 
A.  In  three  ways  : 

1.  By  adding  cr  to  the  positive,  to  form  the  comparative; 
and  est  to  the  positive,  to  form  the  superlative ;  as  soon,  sooner ^ 
soonest.     (See  rules  for  spelling.) 

2.  By  prefixing  more  and  most  to  the  positive ;  as,  heauti- 
fullyy  more  heautifully,  m,ost  heautifuUy , 

Note  1.— Most  adverbs  of  more  th<an  two  syllables,  and  those  ending  in  "  iy," 
are  compared  by  prefixing  more,  and  most. 

Note  2. — The  words  "more"  and  "most"  are  adverbs  of  degree,  and  modify 
the  words  which  they  help  to  compare ;  as,  more,  heautifuUy :  here  ^'more'^  is  an 
adverb  of  degree,  and  modifies  ''heautifuUy." 

Notes. — These  adverbs,  "more"  and  "most,"  may  themselves  be  modifi.ed 
by  other  adverbs  of  degree,  to  intensify  the  comparison,  or  make  it  stronger; 
as, "  She  walks  much  more  gracefuUi/."  Here  "  much  is  an  adverb  of  degree,  and 
modifies  (strengthens)  "more;"  and  "more,"  with  its  own  meaning  and  that 
acquired  from  "  much,"  modifies  "gracefully." 

3.  By  prefixing  the  adverbs  less  and  least  to  the  positive ; 

as,  heautifuUy,  less  beautifully,  least  beautifully. 

Note. — This  manner  of  comparison  expresses  a  diminution  of  the  quality, 
while  the  preceding  expresses  an  increase. 

IRREGULAR   ADVERBS. 

Q.  What  are  irregular  adverbs  ? 

A.  Such  as  are  compared  irregularly,  or  not  in  accordance 
with  any  of  the  preceding  rules. 

The  following  are  the  principal  irregular  adverbs : 

Positive.  Comparative.  Superlative. 

Well,  Better,  Best. 

Badly,  or  ill,  Worse,  Worst. 

Little,  Less.  Least. 

Much,  More,  Most. 

Far,  Farther,  Farthest. 

Forth,  Further,  Furthest. 

Q.  What  is  the  order  of  parsing  an  adverb  ? 
A.  Tell,  1.  What  part  of  speech,  and  why  'i 
2.  What  does  it  modify  ? 
3.  Rule. 


PREPOSITIONS.  73 

MODEL. 

He  acts  wisely. 

Wisely  is  an  adverb  :  a  word  used  to  limit  or  modify  tlic 
meaning  of  verbs,  participles,  adjectives,  and  other  adverbs; 
it  limits  the  verb  acts,  according  to 

Rule  F. — Adverbs  modify  verbs,  participles,  ad- 
jectives, AND  OTHER  ADVERBS. 

exercise. 

The  wise  man  speaks  cautiously.  The  boy  acted  very 
foolishly.  I  see  her  often.  The  wind  frequently  shakes  the 
house.  Is  it  there  ?  No :  it  is  here.  I  write  often ;  you 
oftener.  Keep  your  dress  very  clean.  Her  hair  curls  very 
beautifully.  The  most  expensive  dress  does  not  always  cover 
the  most  faultlessly  formed  person.  Clean  gloves  often  cover 
very  dirty  hands.  A  prudent  man  acts  prudently.  The  very 
wise  man  is  not  always  the  very  good.  Step  quickly.  Time 
flies  very  rapidly.  Sometimes  an  exceedingly  wicked  heart  be- 
comes better.  He  behaved  badly.  God  is  everywhere.  You 
should  treat  your  horse  more  kindly.  The  wall  is  ten  feet 
high.     The  pen  is  three  inches  long. 


LESSON    XXVI. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

Q.  What  is  a  preposition  ? 

A.  A  preposition  is  a  word  used  to  express  some  relation 
between  two  or  more  words  in  the  same  sentence ;  as,  ^^Love 
o/ glory.''  '^This  will  be  hurtful  ^o  you."  '^He  came  ^o 
town." 

Here,  of  shows  the  relation  between  love  and  glori/ ;  to, 
between  hurtful  and  you  ;  to,  between  came  and  toxon. 
Q.  Will  you  repeat  the  list  of  prepositions  ? 


74 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


LIST   OP   PREPOSITIONS. 


Aboard, 

Behind, 

From, 

Through, 

About, 

Below, 

In. 

Throughout, 

Aboye, 

Beneath, 

Into, 

To, 

According  to, 

Beside, 

Notwithstanding, 

Toward, 

Across, 

Besides, 

Of, 

Towards, 

After, 

Between, 

Off, 

Under, 

Against, 

Beyond, 

On, 

Underneath, 

Along, 

By, 

Out  of, 

Unto, 

Amid, 

Concerning, 

Over, 

Up. 

Among, 

Down, 

Past, 

Upon, 

Around, 

During, 

Eegarding, 

With, 

At, 

Except, 

Respecting, 

Within, 

Athwart, 

Excepting, 

Eound, 

Without, 

Before, 

For, 

Since. 

Note  I. — Prepositions  serve  to  direct  the  action  or  state  expressed  by  the 
verb ;  or  the  quality  or  property  of  an  adjective  or  noun,  to  the  noun  or  pronoun 
following  them. 

Note  II.— The  preposition  and  the  noun  which  completes  its  relation,  are,  in 
most  cases,  adverb^,  or  adjectives,  in  meaning;  as,  "The  man  of  generosity 
came  into  the  city."  "Of  generosity"  is  an  adjective  element  describing 
"  man ; "  and  "into  the  city  "  is  an  adverbial  element,  answering  to  the  ques- 
tion "  where  ? "  as   Where  did  the  man  come?    Ans.    "  Into  the  city." 

Note  III.— Prepositions  are  used  to  denote  the  various  relations  of  place, 
time,  possession,  etc. 

Q.  What  is  the  order  for  parsing  a  preposition  ? 
A.  Tell,  1.  What  part  of  speech,  and  why? 

2.  Between  what  words  it  shows  the  relation. 

3.  Rule. 


MODELS   FOR   PARSING   PREPOSITIONS. 
ffe  went  from  town. 
From  is  a  preposition :  a  word  used  to  express  the  rela- 
tion between  other  words ;  shows  the  relation  between  went 
and  towrij  according  to 

Rule  Gr. — A  preposition  shows  the  relation  op  its 

OBJECT   TO   the  WORD   ON   WHICH   THE   OBJECT   DEPENDS. 

Town  is  a  noun )  common  noun ;  third  person ;  singular 


PREPOSITIONS.  76 

number;  in  the  objective  case;  is  used  to  complete  the  rela- 
tion of  the  preposition  from,  according  to 

KULE  H. A  NOUN  OR  PRONOUN  COMPLETING  THE  RE- 
LATION OP  A  PREPOSITION,  MUST  BE  IN  THE  OBJECTIVE 
CASE. 

EXERCISE. 

The  home  of  my  friend  is  pleasantly  situated.  The  mid- 
niurht  hour  is  brooding  over  the  earth.  He  went  from 
Charleston  to  Pensacola.  My  new  dress  has  pretty  trim- 
ming on  the  skirt.  The  man's  hat  is  hanging  on  the  peg. 
The  pig  is  in  its  pen.  If  you  go  home,  come  back  to  your 
class.  Of  his  goodness,  much  might  be  said ;  of  his  intel- 
lect, very  little. 

♦'  Sweet  vale  of  Avoca !  how  calm  could  I  rest, 
In  thy  bosom  of  shade,  with  the  friends  I  love  best !  " 

During  the  first  years  of  life,  the  industrious  man  makes 
preparation  for  the  last. 


LESSON     XXVII. 

CONJUNCTIVES. 

Q.  What  is  a  conjunctive  ? 

A.  A  conjunctive  is  a  word  used  to  connect  words  and 
sentences. 

Q.  Into  liow  many  classes  are  conjunctives  divided  ? 
A.  Into  the  following : 

1.  Copulative,  or  such  as  add  the  parts  to  each  other;  as, 
and,  also,  as  well  as.     Thus  :   "John  and  James  came.'' 

2.  Causal,  or  such  as  introduce  a  cause  or  reason  ;  as,  ybr, 
because,  since,  inasmuch  as.  Thus  :  '<  I  study  because  I  wish 
to  learn." 


76  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

3.  Adversative,  or  such  as  introduce  opposition ;  as,  hutj 
yet,  nevertheless,  still.  Thus :  "  You  ought  to  go,  hut  it  is 
raining." 

4.  Concessive,  or  such  as  grant  a  thing  to  be  so ;  as,  though, 
although.  (Yet  generally  follows  tJwugh;  as,  "Though  he 
slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  in  him.") 

5.  Alternative,  or  such  as  present  a  choice  between  two  or 
more  things;  as,  either  or  neither,  {iiot  either,^  nor,  (iiot  or.) 
These  are  always  used  in  pairs,  thus  ;  "  He  will  either  go  or 
stay." 

6.  Illative,  or  such  as  introduce  a  conclusion ;  as,  there- 
fore, where/ore,  hence.  Thus  :  "  The  moon  intervenes ; 
there/ore,  the  sun  is  in  eclipse." 

7.  Final,  or  such  as  introduce  an  end,  design,  or  purpose  ; 
as,  that,  lest.     Thus  :  *'  He  came,  that  he  might  see." 

Note. — "That"  is  also  the  conjunctive  used  to  introduce  subordinate  sen- 
tences as  the  subject  or  object  of  a  verb ;  as,  He  said  that  he  would  come. 

8.  Conditional,  or  such  as  introduce  a  condition  or  sup- 
position ;  as,  if,  unlessy  except.  Thus :  ^'  If  it  rains,  I  will 
not  go." 

Q.  What  is  the  order  for  parsing  a  conjunctive? 
A.  Tell,  1.  What  part  of  speech.     Why? 

2.  What  kind.     Why? 

3.  What  it  connects. 

4.  Rule. 

MODEL   FOR   PARSING    CONJUNCTIVES. 

The  boy  and  girl  came. 

And  is  a  conjunctive,  a  word  used  to  connect  words ;  cop- 
ulative, because  it  adds  the  parts  together ;  connects  hoy  and 
girl,  according  to 

Rule  I.  Conjunctives  connect  words  and  sentences. 


INTERJECTIONS.  77 

EXERCISE. 

Men  and  boys  love  horses.  The  lady^s  dress  and  hat  cost 
forty  dollars.  I  must  rest,  for  I  am  tired.  Your  interest 
prompts  you  to  go ;  still,  you  stay.  Though  I  perish,  yet  I 
trust.  He  may  go  or  stay.  Harriet  neither  eats  nor  drinks. 
He  is  careless,  hence  unfortunate.  The  orator  spoke,  that 
he  might  be  praised.  Unless  mother  returns,  I  will  not  go. 
It  rains ;  therefore,  the  ground  is  muddy. 


LESSON    XXVIII. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

Q.  What  is  an  interjection  ? 

A.  An  interjection  is  a  word  used  as  a  sign  of  sudden  or 
strong  emotion  ;  as,  ah,  alas,  oh. 

Note. — The  distinguishing  characteristic  of  interjections  is,  that  they  give 
expression  to  feeling,  while  other  parts  of  speech  express  thought. 

Q,  Into  how  many  classes  may  interjections  be  divided? 
A.  Into  as  many  as  there  are  expressions  to  indicate  feel- 
ing. 

Note  1. — Any  word  used  to  show  strong  feehng,  and  disconnected  with  other 
words,  is  an  interjection.  Verb,'',  nouns,  adjectives  and  adverbs  may  thus  be- 
come interjections.    (See  Hst  below.) 

Note  2. — All  words  of  calling,  as  calling  animals,  etc.,  are  interjections.  Yet 
even  this  class  of  words  may  be  regarded  as  verbs  (expressing  ideas  suited  to 
the  comprehension  of  animals)  in  the  imperative  mood;  as,  "Here!  horel 
hereT'  when  addressed  to  a  dog,  means  simply,  "  Come  here!"  or,  "  Eun  hcrel" 
which  implies  a  command. 

Note  3.— The  interjection  may  have  different  meanings,  owing  to  the  manner 
in  which  it  is  used ;  as,  "  Oh  !  I  fear  he  is  dead  I"    "  Oh !  you  scared  me  I" 

Q.  Name  the  principal  interjections? 

A.   1.   Of  joy — io!  eighl  hey! 

2.  Of  sorrow — oh!  ah!  alas! 


78  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

3.  Of  wonder — ha!  strange!  indeed! 

4.  Of  wishing — 0!  (often  used  with  the  nominative 

independent.) 
6.   Of  surprise — what !  ichew  ! 

6.  Of  contempt — fudge!  poh!  tut!  hum^h! 

7.  Of  calling — ho!  hallo! 

8.  Of  laughter — ha !  ha !  ha  ! 

9.  Of  salutation — hail!  ivelcome! 

10.  Of  attention — ho!  hark!  listen! 

11.  Of  interrogation — eh!  ha!  hey! 

Note. — Many  other  classes  might  be  mentioned,  but  the  above  are  the  most 
common. 

MODEL    FOR    PARSING. 

Alas !   my  mother  is   dead ! 
Alas  is  an  interjection,  a  word  used  to  express  strong  emo- 
tion :  it  is  expressive  of  grief. 

Rule  J.    Interjections  are  signs  of  emotion,  and 

HAVE     no     grammatical     CONNECTION    WITH    THE    OTHER 
WORDS    OF    SENTENCES. 

Ak  Tne!   mi/  friend  is  lost! 
Ah  is  an  interjection  expressive  of  sorrow.     Me  is  a  per- 
sonal pronoun  in  the  objective  case,  because  it  denotes  the 
object  reached  or  effected  by  the  fact  that  "  my  friend  is  lost.'' 

Note. — Some  say  that  me  is  governed  by  ah,  but  supply  a  verb  or  preposition 
to  govern  me  ;  or  better  still,  to  regard  me  (and  other  words,  when  used  in  the 
same  way)  as  the  object  reached,  and  hence  governed  by  the  fact  that  occasioned 
the  interjection. 

EXERCISE. 

Oh !  how  my  head  aches !  Fie !  how  badly  you  act ! 
Hist !  strange  noises  are  near !  Pshaw  !  you  tease  me  !  Lo  ! 
I  will  call  all  of  the  families  of  the  kingdoms  of  tKe  north ! 
O  earth,  thy  joys  are  fleeting !  Alas !  he  is  lost  to  me ! 
Bravo  !  renew  your  efforts  !  Hurrah,  soldiers,  fight  for  your 
country!  O  happy  time!  iVh  me!  these  are  horrible 
threats ! 


SYNTAX.  79 


SYNTAX. 


Syntax  is  that  part  of  grammar  which  treats  of  the  proper 
method  of  forming  sentences. 

A  sentence  is  a  collection  of  words  making  complete  sense. 

A  sentence  consists  of  two  parts,  a  subject  and  predicate. 

The  subject  is  that  of  which  something  is  affirmed. 

The  subject  of  a  sentence  is  always  a  nou7iy  pronoun,  or  a 
sentence,  or  some  part  of  a  sentence  used  as  a  noun;  ^^John 
comes."  "  To  steep  is  pleasant. '^  ''  That  you  should  say  this, 
astonishes  me.'^ 

H^hQ  predicate  is  that  which  is  aflSrmed  of  the  subject. 

H\iQ  predicate  consists  of  two  parts — the  verb,  or  copula, 
and  the  attribute. 

The  copula  contains  such  verbs  as  do  not  complete  the 
predicate,  but  take  after  them  some  word  denoting  a  property 
of  the  subject.  The  principal  copula  is  "to  he  f  the  others 
are  become,  seem,  appear'^  and  the  passive  forms  of  deem, 
name,  call,  consider,  and  some  others. 

The  attribicte  is  that  which  is  affirmed  by  the  copula. 

The  copula  and  attribute  are  often  united  in  the  same 
word;  in  such  cases,  that  word  is  a  verb  ;  as,  '^William  runs." 
To  make  the  copula  appear,  it  is  only  necessary  to  use  the 
present  participle  of  ^'run"  with  "t's;"  thus,  ^^ William  is 
running."  "Is"  is  the  copula,  and  "running,"  the  attri- 
bute. 

Questions. — What  is  syntax  ?  A  sentence  ?  Of  what  docsf  a  sentence  consist? 
What  is  the  subject  ?  What  part  of  speech  is  the  subject  of  a  sentence  7  What 
is  the  predicate?  Of  what  does  it  consist?  What  is  the  copula?  The  princi- 
pal copula?  The  others?  What  is  the  attribute?  When  i.s  the  attribute  a 
verb  ? 


80  ENGLISH    GRAiMMAR. 

Of  any  subject  we  may  predicate — 

1.  What  it  <foes;  as,  ^^  Horses  neigh  J* 

2.  AVhat  qualities  it  has ;  as  ^*  Horses  are  courageous. ' 

3.  What  it  is ;  as,  ^'Horses  are  animals.'* 

Of  these  predicates,  the  first  is  always  a  verb  ;  the  second, 
a  copula  and  adjective ;  the  third,  a  copula  and  a  noun  or 
j^ronoun. 

SUBJECT,    GRAMMATICAL   AND   LOGICAL. 

The  grammatical  subject  is  a  single  word;  as,  The  black 
hfji^se  is  running*     Here  ^' horse''  is  the  grammatical  subject. 

Note. — Two  or  more  words  taken  together,  sometimes  constitute  the  gram- 
nititical  subject;  as,  His  being  a  stranger,  excited  much  prejudice  against  him. 
"  Being  a  stranger,"  is  the  grammatical  subject  of  "excited." 

The  logical  subject  consists  of  the  grammatical  and  all  its 
modifiers;  as.  The  young  man  cVixne.  "The  young  man"  is 
the  logical  subject  of  came. 

Note. — When  the  grammatical  subject  is  not  modified,  the  logical  and  gram- 
matical are  the  same.  Men  love  their  friends.  "Men"  is  the  grammatical  and 
logical  subject. 

PREDICATE,    GRAMMATICAL   AND   LOGICAL. 

The  gramm,atical  predicate  is  either  a  verb,  or  a  copula 
verb  with  an  adjective  or  noun;  as,  Boys  play ;  the  rose  is 
sweet ;  A  dog  is  an  animal. 

Note. — The  copula  is  used  to  assert  the  attribute  of  the  subject. 

The  logical  predicate  consists  of  the  grammatical  with  all 
its  modifiers;  as.  He  came  very  rapidly.  "  Came  very  rapidly'' 
is  the  logical  predicate. 

Questions. — What  may  be  predicated  of  any  subject?  What  is  the  first  of 
these  predicates?    The  second?    The  third? 

What  is  a  grammatical  subject?  What  the  logical?  When  are  they  the 
iijune  ? 

What  is  a  grammatical  predicate  ?  Logical?  When  the  same?  What  is  the 
use  of  the  copula  verb? 


SYNTAX.  81 

MODIFIED    SUBJECT   AND   PREDICATE. 

The  grammatical  subject  may  be  modified  variously  : 

1.  By  a  noun  in  the  same  case ;  as,  My  brother  John  came. 

2.  By  a  noun  in  the  j^osscssive  case  ;  as,  John's  dog  is  dead. 

3.  By  a   preposition    (of)  and   its    object;  as,  a  man  of 
honor  has  come. 

4.  By  an  adjective;  as,  The  good  boy  learns. 

5.  By  an  infinitive;  as,  A  desire  to  hurt  is  injurious. 

6.  By  a  rdative  clause ;  as.  He  who  loves,  is  loved  in  turn. 

7.  By  an  explanatory  sentence  ;  as,  The  belief  that  we  are 
fallible  heinijs,  should  make  us  very  careful. 

Note.— Most  words  used  to  modify  others,  may  themselves  be  modified. 

The  grammatical  predicate  may  be  variously  modified  : 

1.  If  the  predicate  is  an  intransitive  verb,  by  an  adverb  ; 
as,  He  came  quickly. 

2.  If  the  verb  is  transitive,  by  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the 
objective  case;  as,  I  know  the  man  ;  you  saw  him. 

3.  If  the  predicate  consists  of  a  cojmla  and  attribute  : 

1.  If  the  attribute  is  a  noun,  it  may  be  modified  by  an 
adjective,  preposition  and  its  object,  or  by  a  relative  clause ; 
as,  He  is  a  good  boy;  he  is  a  boy  of  honor ;  he  is  the  boy 
whom  you  saw. 

2.  If  the  attribute  is  an  adjective,  it  may  be  modified  by 
an  adverb ;  as.  She  is  very  smart. 

3.  By  an  infinitive ;  as.  He  desires  to  sec. 

4.  By  a  preposition,  and  its  object;  as,  He  came  to  me. 

5.  By  a  clause ;  as.  He  said  that  he  would  come. 
Remark.— All  the  various  parts  of  speech,  except  interjections,  are 

used  to  modify  the  subject,  or  its  predicate. 

Sentences,  in  regard  to  their  structure^  are  divided  into 
three  classes  :   Simple,  Compound,  and  Complex  : 

QucMions.—Jn  how  many  ways  may  the  grammatical  subject  bo  modified? 
What  are  they  7  May  most  words,  used  to  modify  others,  be  modified  them- 
selves? How  may  the  grainmntioal  predicate  ho  modified?  Itepeat  the  re- 
mark.    How  'MP  sentences  divi<led  in  recard  to  tlieir  structure  f 


82  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

1.  A  simple  sentence  contains  but  one  subject  and  one 
predicate ;  as,  ^^  John  reads."  *^The  white  horse  runs 
swiftly." 

2.  A  compound  sentence  consists  of  two  or  more  simple 
sentences  connected  together ;  as,  '^  Susan  is  pretty,  but 
Anna  is  good."  "  John  and  James  study,"  [John  studies, 
and  James  studies.]  ''  John  studies  and  learns,"  [John 
studies,  and  John  learns.]     "  I  will  go,  when  you  come." 

3»  A  complex  sentence  is  one  which  has  a  proposition  as 
the  subject  J  attribute  j  or  object  ^  of  the  verb ;  as,  ^'  That  yon 
should  do  this,  is  strange  ! "  "  The  question  is,  '  Who  saw 
him  ?'  "     "  I  know  that  you  saw  him." 

Compound  sentences  contain  clauses  that  are  coordinate  or 
subordinate.  Coordinate  clauses  are  those  of  equal  rank,  or 
importance.  .  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "John  studies  well, 
and  Jane  learns  rapidly,"  the  clauses,  "John  studies  well," 
and  "  Jane  learns  rapidly,"  are  coordinate  clauses,  because 
they  are  of  equal  importance  in  the  sentence. 

Subordinate  clauses  are  such  as  do  not  make  complete 
sense  by  themselves;  but  depend  upon  some  other  clause 
called  the  jJrincipal ;  as,  "I  was  sleeping"  (principal  clause,) 
"when  you  came,"  (subordinate  clause.) 

Note. — Every  compound  sentence  must  have  at  least  o»e  principal  clause. 

Sentences  are  divided,  according  to  their  use,  into  four 
classes  : 

1.  Declarative,  or  such  as  declare,  or  affirm  ;  as,  "  We  are 
happy." 

2.  Interrogative,  or  such  as  ask  a  question;  as,  "Wlio 
comes  ?  " 

3.  Imj^erative,  or  such  as  command,  exhort,  permit;  as, 
"Come  here."     "Do  come." 

Questions. — What  is  a  simple  sentence?  Compound?  Complex?  What  are 
coordinate  clauses?  Subordinate?  What  are  they  called?  Notcf  How  are 
sentences  divided  according  to  use?  What  is  a  declarative  sentence?  In- 
terrogative ?     Imperative  ? 


SYNTAX.  83 

4.  Exclamatory^  or  such  as  express  wonder,  surprise,  con- 
tempt, &c. ;  as,  "What  a  strange  being  you  are  !"  "  Who 
ever  read  such  stuff !" 

NoTK. — Any  of  these  sentences  may  be  rendered  negative  by  inserting  a  neg- 
ative adverb  ;  as,  "We  are  not.  happy."  "  Who  will  not  come  7 "  "  Come  not." 
"It  is  strange  that  you  should  not  come  1 " 

Point  out  the  grammatical  and  logical  subjects  and  predi- 
cates in  the  following  exercise ;  also  tell  what  kind  of  sen- 
tences they  are : 

Model. — The  little  bird  sings  sweetly. 

This  is  a  simple  sentence;  because  it  has  but  one  subject 
and  one  verb.  **Bird"  is  the  grammatical  subject;  "The 
little  bird"  is  the  logical  subject."  "Sings"  is  the  gram- 
matical predicate,  and  "  sings  sweetly  "  is  the  logical  predi- 
cate. 

"  John  studies  well,  and  learns  rapidly."  This  is  a  com- 
pound sentence ;  because  it  has  a  compound  predicate ; 
(  "  studies''  and  "  learns.")  "  John  "  is  the  grammatical  and 
logical  subject.  "  Studies  "  and  "  learns "  are  the  gram- 
matical predicates;  "studies  well"  and  "learns  rapidly" 
form  the  compound  logical  predicates. 

EXERCISES. 

The  girl  is  industrious.  The  good  man  gets  his  living 
honestly.  Boys  go  to  school,  and  some  of  them  learn. 
Virtue  and  vice  are  opposites.  Who  went  to  the  spring  ? 
Come,  Charles,  and  read  your  lesson.  Do  you  say  I  must 
read  my  lesson  ?  You  will  hear  it,  if  I  will  rea(J  it.  How 
wonderful  is  man  !  Boys  and  girls  play  and  sing  together. 
I  know  that  you  will  come.  When  Harry  comes,  I  will  go. 
Would  you  say  such  a  foolish  thing  ?  What  did  I  say  ?  I 
will  not  tell  you  now. 

Questions.  —  What  is  an  exclamatory  sentence?  How  may  a  negative  sen- 
tience be  formed? 


8i  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

KULES  OF  SYNTAX. 


Rule  I.  The  subject  of  a  finite  verb  must  be  in  the  nom- 
inative case;  as,  ^' The  hoy  plays.' ' 

Note  1. — Any  verb,  not  in  the  infinitive  mood,  is  called ^nt^e. 

Note  2.— The  subject  of  a  verb  may  be  a  noun,  pronoun,  verb  in  the  infini- 
tive mood,  sentence,  or  any  part  of  a  sentence  used  as  a  noun.  (See  prece- 
ding lesson.) 

Notes.  —  All  subjects  must  have  verbs,  expressed  or  understood;  as,  "Who 
runs?"  "I;"  that  is,  I  run.  The  verb  is  often  understood,  particularly  in 
answer  to  questions,  and  after  "  as  "  and  "  than ; "  as,  "  "Who  told  you  ? "  "  Wil- 
liam ; "  that  is,  William  told  me.  "  He  has  eaten  more  than  I ; "  that  is,  than  I 
have  eaten.  "  Mary  is  as  healthy  as  Anna; "  tliat  is,  as  Anna  is  healthy.  "  Tlie 
smoother  the  surface,  the  deeper  the  water." 

Note  4.  — The  subject  is  frequently  placed  after  the  verb,  or  between  the 
auxiliary  and  the  principal  verb;  as,  "  Great  is  Diana."    "  Will  she  go  ? " 

PARSING. 
He  writes. 
Model. — He  is  a  personal  pronoun,  masculine   gender, 
third  person,  singular  number,  and  in  the  nominative  case  to 
writes,  according  to 

Rule  I.  The  subject  of  a  finite  verb  must  be  in  the  nomi- 
native case. 

V  EXERCISE. 

The  horse  runs.  Trees  grow.  Wealth  begets  misery. 
The  mariner's  compass  was  invented  in  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury. Where  are  you  going  ?  Who  are  you  ?  There  is  an 
apple.  I  am  going  to  church.  Despise  not  poverty.  Be- 
ware. The  governor  refused  us  his  protection.  Birds  sing. 
Spring  has  come.  My  heart  is  hard.  Providence  protects 
us. 


QMfs/!on.s.— What  is  rule  I  ?  What  is  a  finite  verb  ?  What  may  be  used  as  the 
subject  of  a  verb?  Must  all  subjects  have  verbs?  When  is  the  verb  under- 
stood ?    What  is  the  place  of  the  subject? 


SYNTAX.  85 

EXERCISE   TO    BE   CORRECTED. 

Her  and  he  are  eating.  Me  am  here.  Who  has  my  pen  ? 
Him.  Them  peaches  are  excellent.  Who  moved  my  slate  ? 
Me.  He  has  more  pens  than  me.  Whom  are  you  ?  Yon 
can  write  as  well  as  them.  Them  are  fine  children.  Who 
will  go  with  me  ?  Her  and  him.  Him  said  that.  Where 
are  us  ?  Us  are  at  home.  Me  and  Julia  have  some  apples. 
Her  and  me  are  expected.  Whomsoever  wants  bread  can 
have  it. 

Rule  II.  A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  with  the  copula  to 
form  the  predicate,  must  be  in  the  same  case  as  the  subject. 

This  rule  is  necessary  only  when  we  predicate  of  a  thing 
what  it  is  ;  as,  "A  cat  is  an  animal."  Here  animal  means 
the  same  thing  that  cat  does. 

Note  1. — If  the  verb  is  in  the  infinitive  mood,  having  its  subject*  in  the  ob- 
jective case,  the  noun  in  the  predicate  must  be  in  the  objective  case  also;  as, 
"  For  him  to  be  a  thief,  is  distressing."  Him  is  the  objective  subject  of  to  be,  and 
thief  is  the  objective  predicate. 

Note  2. — Whether  the  noun  in  the  predicate  after  the  infinitive  is  in  the 
notninativc  or  objective  case,  depends  upon  the  circumstance  of  the  infinitive's 
liaving  a  subject.  If  it  has  a  subject,  the  predicate  noun  is  in  the  objective 
case;  otherwise  it  is  in  the  nominative;  as,  I  know  him  to  be  the  7nan  (object- 
ive.)   He  appears  to  be  a  king  (nominative.) 

Note  3. — The  participles  of  copula  verbs  are  followed  by  the  same  case  as  the 
noun  to  wliich  the  participle  refers ;  as, ''  Washington,  being  the  President  of 
the  United  States,  preserved  the  interests  of  the  whole  Union."  President  is 
the  nominative  after  being,  (which  does  not  affirm  but  assumes  the  fact  that 
Washington  was  President.) 

PARSING. 
That  man  is  a  tinner. 
Model. —  Tinner  is  a  common  noun,  third  person,  singu- 
lar number,  and  in  the  nominative  case,  because  it  is  used 
with  the  copula  is  to  form  the  predicate. 

Questions. — What  is  rule  II?  When  is  this  rule  necessary?  Repeat  Note  1. 
Upon  what  does  the  case  of  the  predicate  noun  depend?  V>\  what  case  are 
the  participles  of  copula  verbs  followed? 

*  Logical,  not  grammuticMJ  subject. 


86  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Rule  II.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  with  the  copula  to 
form  the  predicate,  must  be  in  the  same  case  as  the  subject. 

EXERCISE. 

The  drunkard  is  a  brutish  man.  Good  nature  is  a  desira- 
ble virtue.  The  son,  bred  in  sloth,  becomes  a  profligaite. 
Life  is  a  fleeting  moment.  I  am  a  worm  of  the  dust.  The 
world  is  the  creature  of  God.  He  ordered  the  floor  to  be 
his  bed.  I  think  her  to  be  a  lady.  I  took  him  to  be  a  gen- 
tleman. I  consider  William  to  be  a  good  student;  but  An- 
drew, a  worthless  villain.  He  being  mayor,  quelled  the  dis- 
turbance. 

EXERCISE    TO    BE    CORRECTED. 

This  man  is  him.  These  are  them.  The  one  called  Jane 
is  her.  For  he  to  be  a  rogue,  is  distressing.  I  acknowledge 
she  to  be  my  sister.  Do  you  consider  I  to  be  a  villain  ?  For 
they  to  be  good  men  is  impossible.  Take  me  to  be  she,  if 
you  dare. 

Rule  III.  The  person  or  thing  addressed  is  put  in  the 
nominative  case,  independent ;  as,  "  Jiilia^  come  to  me." 

Explanation. — By  independent  is  meant  that  the  noun  has  no  gram- 
matical connection  with  any  other  part  of  the  sentence  in  which  it 

stands. 

Note  1. — Nouns  thus  used  are  in  the  second  person.  When,  therefore,  an 
object  without  life  is  addressed,  it  is  regarded  as  a  human  being,  or  as  possess- 
ing some  of  the  qualities  of  a  human  being;  as,  "Listen,  winds,  to  my  story." 
Here  the  winds  are  commanded  to  listen,  which  imphes,  by  figure  of  speech, 
the  capacity  to  hear,  the  intellect  to  understand  the  command. 

Note  2. — Such  nouns  are  often  accompanied  by  interjections ;  as,  "  0  soldiers  I 
your  hberties  are  endangered."  When  the  interjection  is  used  with  the  noun, 
the  address  is  more  earnest  and  emphatic. 

Note  3. — Tlie  noun  independent  may  be  limited  by  a  single  word  or  any  num- 
ber of  words ;  as,  "  Sweet  vale  of  Avoca !  how  calm  could  I  rest,"  etc.  Here  vale 
is  limited  by  "sweet"  and  "of  Avooa." 

Questions.— ^hni  is  Rule  III?  What  is  meant  by  independent?  Repeat 
Note  1.    Note  2.    Note  3. 


SYNTAX.  87 

PARSING. 

Plato,  thou  rcasonest  well. 

Model. — Plato  is  a  proper  noun,  masculine  gender,  second 
person,  singular  number,  and  in  the  nominative  case  inde- 
pendent, according  to 

lluLE  III.  The  person  or  thing  addressed  is  put  in  the 
nominative  case — independent. 

EXERCISE. 

Father  !  hear  my  prayer.  O  winds  !  sing  me  a  soft  lullaby. 
My  friend,  do  you  remember  your  vow  ?  Take  advice,  my 
dear  son,  and  change  your  course.  Your  liberties,  O  soldiers 
of  the  South,  are  endangered.  Jlome  !  thou  art  no  more  ! 
O  night,  and  storm,  and  darkness,  ye  are  wondrous  strong ! 

Rule  IV.  A  noun  and  a  participle  independent  of  the 
rest  of  the  sentence,  is  in  the  nominative  absolute;  as,  ''They 
refusing  to  comply,  I  withdrew." 

Explanation. — By  ♦*absoUite"  is  meant  that  the  noun  50  m.W,  is  free 
from,  any  grammatical  connection  rcith  the  ttM  of  the  sentence.  Tlie  noun 
absohite  differs  from  the  noun  independent,  by  being  connected  with 
a  participle,  and  not  being  addressed. 

Note  1.— The  clause  containing  the  nominative  absolute,  though  free  from 
grammatical  connection  with  other  parts  of  the  sentence,  is  very  closely  con- 
nected Avith  it  in  thought.  It  often  denotes  time^  cause,  condition,  etc. ;  as,  "  The 
letter  having  been  read,  he  immediately  departed."  The  clause,  "The  letter 
having  been  read,"  denotes  time,  and  when  the  letter  was  read,  or  after  the  letter 
was  read.  "  The  bill  being  rejected,  I,"  said  the  senator,  "  will  return  home." 
"  The  bill  being  rejected,'^  denotes  condition,  and,  if  the  bill  is  rejected,  or  should  the 
bill  be  rejected.  "  Mi/ friend  having  treated  me  rudely,  I  was  forced  to  disown  him." 
Here  the  first  claur<c  denotes  cause,  and.  because  my  friend  treated  me  rudely. 

Note  2. — When  the  noun  alisolute  is  used  with  a  participle  derived  from  a 
copula  verb,  the  participle  must  have  a  noun,  or  adjective  after  it  to  form  the  at- 
tribute; (see  Rule  II,  note;)  as  ''He  being  a  traitor,  our  cause  suffered  much 
irynry."    "^e  being  sick,  his  business  was  interrupted." 

QucA(ions.—\\'hnt  is  Rule  IV?  What  is  mea^ji  by  at)Solute7  How  is  the  ab- 
solute clause  connected  with  the  rest  of  the  sentence  ?  What  must  follow  when 
the  noun  is  used  absolutely  with  the  participle  of  the  eopula  verb? 


-88  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Note  3. — The  noun  is  sometimes  omitted,  when  its  omission  causes  no  ob- 
scurity, or  when  it  is  some  indefinite  word;  as,  "  Viciving  hi<s  course  in  the  most 
favorable  liyht,  there  is  little  to  commend."  Supply  we,  one,  any  one,  or  people^ 
to  which  ''viewing''  must  be  referred. 

Note  4. — The  participles,  being  and  having  been,  are  sometimes  omitted,  when 
the  noun  is  absolute. 

PARSING. 

The  war  being  finished,  the  country  recovered  from  its  prostration. 

Model. —  War  is  a  common  noun,  third  person,  singular 
number,  and  in  the  nominative  case  absolute  with  ^''heivg 
finishes!,"  according  to 

Rule  IV.  A  noun  and  a  participle  independent  of  the 
rest  of  the  sentence,  is  in  the  nominative  absolute. 

exercise. 

Hearts  agreeing,  heads  may  differ.     Order  being  restored, 
the  gentleman  continued.     His  mother  being  present,  John 
could  not  lie.     Having  ended  his   discourse,  the  assembly 
dispersed.     Being  conscious  of  guilt,  men  tremble  at  death. 
*^Her  wheel  at  rest,  the  matron  thrills  no  more 
With  treasured  tales  and  legendary  lore." 

exercise  to  be  corrected. 

Us  being  young,  were  deceived.  Him  denying  the  charge, 
I  stood  abashed.  Thee  being  present,  he  withdrew.  Them 
refusing  to  call,  I  came  home.  Her  having  departed,  Julia 
was  disappointed.     Me  being  sick,  he  excused  me. 

Rule  V.  The  possessive  case  limits  the  noun  with  which 
it  is  connected )  as,  "  The  bird's  nest." 

Explanation. — The  noun  without  the  possessive  case  (or  some 
limiting  word)  is  used  in  its  widest  and  most  comprehensive  sense;  as, 
''John's  money  has  been  lost."     Without  "John's"  the  sentence 

Qv,estions. — When  may  the  noun  absolute  be  omitted? 


SYNTAX.  89 

would  read  thus :  "  Money  has  been  lost ;"  in  which  case  it  is  wholly 
indetinite  as  to  whose  money  was  lost.     The  addition  of  the  word 

"John's"  limiln  the  indefinite  expression^  and  makes  it  definite. 

Note  1. — The  possessive  case  has  the  signification  of  an  adjective. 

Note  2. — The  possessive  case  denoting  possession  is  equivalent  (very  nearly) 
to  the  objective  case  of  the  same  noun,  governed  l>y  of ;  as,  '•  Woman's  beauty" 
— "  The  beauty  of  woman."  The  main  point  of  diflTerence  between  "  woman's" 
and  "  of  woman"  is,  that  the  latter  is  a  more  general  expression. 

Notes. — Prepositions  are  sometimes  followed  by  a  noun  in  the  possessive 
case,  limiting  a  noun  understood ;  as,  "  This  is  a  hat  of  my  brother's." 

PARSING. 
The  girVs  bonnet. 

Model. —  GirlU  is  a  common  noun,  feminine  gender,  third 
person,  singular  number,  in  the  possessive  case,  and  limits 
the  noun  ^'  bonnet,"  according  to 

Rule  V.  The  possessive  case  limits  the  noun  with  which 
it  is  connected. 

EXERCISE. 

My  cap  was  bought  at  Jones'  store.  Your  father's  barn  is 
a  good  one.  The  dog's  head  is  sore.  Anna's  mother's  dress 
is  new.  Good  men  love  God's  word.  His  step  is  slow.  The 
man's  pen  is  better  than  mine.  Smith  &  Pool's  new  goods 
have  come.  Mr.  J.  P.  Corsby's  horse  ran  away.  Our  tables 
are  smaller  than  yours.  Their  folly  fills  their  father's  heart 
with  grief.  The  snake's  tongue  is  forked.  My  cap  came 
from  Allen  &  Dean's.     He  is  at  his  father's. 

EXERCISE   TO   BE   CORRECTED. 

Mothers  hair  is  not  black.  AVilliam'  hat  is  on  the  bed. 
This  is  his'.  Mary,  her  book  is  torn.  I  bought  my  bonnet 
at  Dobbin's  and  Gray's.  The  kin  us  house.  The  men  lost 
their's  way.     These  are  mine's,  and  those  yours's. 


PH  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Rule  VI.  Transitive  verbs  and  their  participles,  in  the 
active  voice,  govern  the  objective  case;  as,  "John  struck 
William.^'     "  I  saw  John  beating  him.'' 

ExPLANATiOT*.^— Nouns  In  the  objective  case  After  stich  verbs,  or 
participles,  are  used  to  limit  the  application  of  the  action  or  state 
denoted  by  the  verb.  Thus,  ''William"  lifrtits  the  action  of  the  verb 
"struck;"  and  "him,"  that  of  the  participle  "beating.'*  "John 
struck,"  of  itself,  conveys  no  definite  idea. 

Note  1. — The  objective  case  answers  to  the  question,  Whomf  or  Whatf  as, 
"Whom  do  you  see?  James."  That  is,  I  see  James.  "  What  do  you  see?  A 
horse."  These  answers  are  in  the  objective  case,  and  governed  by  the  verb 
"  see,"  understood. 

Note  2.— Some  verbs  which  do  not  express  action  are  followed  by  the  object- 
ive case;  as,  '-Susan  resembles  her  mother."  Here  "mother"  is  in  the  object- 
ive case,  and  Ibjiits  the  application  of  the  quality  or  state  denoted  by  the  verb 
"resembles." 

Note  3. — Intransitive  verbs  are  sometimes  followed  by  the  objective  case  of 
a  noun  of  kindred  signification;  as,  "He  lived  a  life  of  wretchedness."  "Life" 
is  kindred  to  "live,"  and  is  in  the  objective  case,  limiting  "live,"  (used  transi- 
tively.) 

Note  4.  Verbs  in  the  infinitive  mode  are  used  as  objects  of  many  verbs,  (espe- 
cially those  denoting  a  mental  operation);  as,  "The  youth  desires  to  study.^* 
"To  study"  is  the  object  of  "desires." 

Note  5. — Dependent  sentences  are  used  as  the  objects  of  verbs;  as,  "He 
knew  that  he  said  it."  "  He  said  it"  is  the  object  of  "  knew."  The  conjunctive 
"  that"  is  the  word  which  regularly  introduces  such  objects.  "  That"  is  often 
omitted ;  as,  "  He  said,  '  I  will  come.' " 

Note  6. — Some  verbs  are  followed  by  two  objectives  denoting  the  same  per- 
son or  thing;  as,  "They  appointed  him  president."  "President"  is  an  attribute 
of  "  him,"  and  may  be  regarded  as  the  predicate  after  "  to  be,"  understood ;  as, 
"  They  elected  /m>h  to  be  president."  In  parsing,  it  is  better  to  supply  some 
copula  verb  in  all  such  cases.  Some  of  the  verbs  thus  used  are^name,  call, 
render,  constitute,  make,  appoint,  deem. 

Note  7.— Verbs  of  asking,  teaching,  giving,  etc.,  are  followed  by  two  object 
Ives — one  of  a  person,  and  the  other  of  a  thing;  as,  "He  gave  me  a  hook." 

1.  With  verbs  of  giving,  "  to"  should  be  supplied  before  the  object  den<5ting 
the  person ;  as,  "  He  gave  a  book  to  me." 

2.  With  verbs  of  asking,  "of,"  "about,"  or  "concerning,"  may  be  supplied 
before  one  of  the  objects,  as  the  sense  requires. 

3.  With  verbs  of  teaching,  "  in,"  or  "  in  respect  to,"  xnay  be  supplied  before 
the  object  denoting  the  thing;  as,  "He  taught  me  wi  respect  to  grammar." 

Qufs^iows.— Whatis  Rule  VI?  Explain  the  Rule.  What  is  Note  1?  Note  2? 
Note  3?  Note  4?  How  are  dependent  clauses  often  used?  Repeat  Note  6. 
Name  some  of  these  verbs.  What  is  said  of  verbs  of  asA;i>?47.'  Teaching  f  What 
should  be  supplied  with  verbs  of  giving  f    Asking?    Teaching? 


SYNTAX.  91 

PARSING. 

Men  eat  bread. 

Model. — Bread  is  a  common  noun,  third  person,  singular 
number,  in  the  objective  case,  and  governed  by  "  eat,"  ac- 
cording to 

Rule  VI.  Transitive  verbs  and  their  participles,  in  the 
active  voice,  govern  the  objective  case. 

EXERCISE. 

We  plow  the  fields  before  planting  corn.  Wild  beasts  in- 
habit the  country.  She  resembles  her  brother.  The  man 
ran  a  race.  Wis  father  dreamed  that  he  was  in  heaven.  He 
wrote,  ^'  Be  kind  to  my  child.''  I  have  been  writing  a  let- 
ter. An  enemy  exaggerates  a  man's  crimes ;  a  friend,  his 
virtues.  George  desires  to  learn.  Learn  to  study.  "  You 
will  soon  recover,"  said  the  physician.  Whom  do  you  see? 
What  do  you  want?  He  kindly  showed  me  a  seat.  John 
granted  him  a  favor.     The  people  made  the  man  an  oflBcer. 

EXERCISE   TO   BE    CORRECTED. 

William  calls  I  his  friend,  but  Julia  considers  my  her 
enemy.  Teach  he  his  lesson.  Give  we  our  daily  bread. 
Who  did  you  strike?  Here  is  a  friend  who  you  must  re- 
ceive cordially.  Give  John  and  I  some  berries.  I  owe  he 
some  money.     Forgive  we  our  debts. 

Rule  VII.  Prepositions  govern  the  objective  case ;  as, 
^'  The  girl  walks  through  the  garden.'* 

Explanation.  —  The  preposition  serves  to  guide  to  the  object 
tipon  or  to  -which  the  action  or  state  of  the  verb  tends,  or  to  which  the 
qualiit/  of  an  adjective  or  noun  is  directed. 


Questions.— V^'hai  is  Rule  Vlir    Give  the  Explanatioa. 


921  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Note  1. — Participles,  when  used  as  nouns,  may  be  the  objects  of  preposi- 
tions;  as,  "  The  cause  of  my  coming  is  this."    "Coming"  is  the  object  of  "of." 

Note  2. — Sometimes  adverbs  are  used  as  objects  of  prepositions;  as,  "At 
once."    "  Forever."    In  such  cases  the  adverb  has  the  force  of  a  noun. 

Notes. — A  clause  sometimes  becomes  the  object  of  a  preposition;  as,  *' It 
all  depends  on  who  the  men  are."    "  Who  the  men  are,"  is  the  object  of  "on." 
Note  4. — Prepositions  are  often  omitted : 

1.  Before  the  noun  home;  as,  "He  went  home."  In  parsing  "home,"  supply 
"  to ; "  as,  "He  went  (to)  home." 

2.  Before  nouns  denoting  ichen,  or  hoio  long;  as  "He  came  last  June,  and  re- 
mained a  month;"  that  is,  "He  came  (on)  last  June,  and  remained  (during)  a 
month." 

3.  Before  nouns  of  direction  or  distance;  as,  "Which  tvay  did  he  go? "  tliat  is, 
"Along  which  way."  "He  traveled  ten  miles;"  that  is,  "  over  ov  tfaoajh  ten 
miles." 

Note  5. — "  Worth  "  is  construed  by  grammarians  in  different  ways : 

1.  As  an  adjective,  with  "to"  supplied;  as,  "The  horse  is  worth  (to,  or  to  the 
amount  of)  one  hundred  dollars." 

2.  As  a  noun,  with  "of  the"  before,  and  "of"  after  it;  as,  "The  horse  is  (nf 
the)  worth  (of)  one  hundred  dollars." 

3.  As  a  preposition ;  as,  "  The  knife  is  tcorth  a  dollar." 
The  first  construction  is  preferable. 

Note  6. — Prepositions  and  their  objects  (except  of)  usually  form  adverb- 
ial elements. 

Note  7.— Prepositions  are  frequently  construed  with  adjectives;  as,  "in 
vain,"  "on  high;"  that  is,  "in  a  vain  manner,"  "on  high  walls."  Such  phrases 
are  equivalent  to  adverbs,  implying  manner,  place,  time  or  degree.  In  parsing, 
supply  the  omission. 

Note  8. — After  like,  near,  nigh,  the  preposition  to,  or  unto,  is  frequently  un- 
derstood ;  as,  " This  is  hke  (to  or  unto )  gold." 

Note  9. — The  antecedent  term  of  the  relation  ( shown  by  a  preposition, ) 
may  be  a  noun,  verb,  adjective,  adverb,  or  interjection. 

PARSING. 
He  lives  in  America. 
Model. — America  is  a  proper  noun,  third  person,  singu- 
lar number,  in  the  objective  case,  and  governed  by  the  prep- 
osition "in,"  according  to 

Rule  VII.     Prepositions  govern  the  objective  case. 

Questions. — Do  participles  ever  become  objects  of  prepositions?  Adverbs? 
Clauses?  When  are  prepositions  usually  omitted?  In  how  many  ways  is 
"worth"  construed?  Which  is  preferable?  What  kind  of  elements  do 
prepositions,  and  their  objects,  form?  What  is  Note  VII?  What  is  said  of 
"  like,"  "  near  "  and  "  nigh  ? '    What  of  the  antecedent  term  ? " 


SYNTAX.  93 


EXERCISE. 


The  history  of  Peter  is  agreeable  to  the  sacred  texts.  The 
wisest  princes  need  not  think  it  any  diminution  of  their 
greatness,  or  derogation  from  their  sufficiency,  to  rely  upon 
counsel.  He  came  from  Switzerland,  through  France,  over 
to  England,  and  stayed  some  months  among  us.  He  was  re- 
lated to,  and  governed  by,  the  same  person.  After  waiting 
a  long  time,  we  left. 

"Like  the  dew  on  the  mountain, 
Like  the  foam  on  the  river. 
Like  the  bubble  on  the  fountain, 
Thou  art  gone,  and  forever." 

Rule  VIII. — A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  to  identify  another 
noun  or  pronoun,  must  be  in  the  same  case,  called  apposition ; 
as,  "John,  the  sailor.'^ 

Explanation. — The  second  noun  is  used  to  designate  a  person,  or 
thing,  more  precisely,  by  mentioning  some  attribute,  office,  or  profes- 
sion, etc.,  of  the  first  noun.  Thus,  "sailor*'  is  used  to  show  what 
"John"  is  meant. 

Note  1. — The  nouns  must  always  denote  the  same  person  or  thing. 

Note  2. — The  second  noun  is  usually  in  the  same  number  as  the  first. 

Notes. — A  noun  identifying  may  itself  be  identified  by  another  noun;  as, 
"The  Empress,  Josephine,  tho  wife  of  Napoleon."  "Josephine"  is  in  apposi- 
tion with  "Empress,"  and  "wife"  with  "Josephine." 

Note  4. — The  place  of  the  first  noun  may  be  supplied  by  a  clause;  as,  "He 
sought  to  decoy  the  youth  from  the  path  of  duty :  a  thing  which  he  could  not 
effect."  "  Thing  "  is  in  apposition  with  the  fact  expressed  in  the  preceding 
part  of  the  sentence. 

Note  5. — When  nouns,  in  apposition,  are  in  the  possessive  case,  the  pos.sess- 
ive  ending  is  added  only  to  the  last;  as,  "John  the  Baptisfs  head." 

Note  6. — A  distributive  pronoun  in  the  singular  number,  is  sometimes  in  ap- 
position with  a  noun  in  the  plural;  as,  "The  soldiers  returned  encfetohis  tent." 
"  Each'  is  in  apposition  distributively  with  "  soldiers?" 


Questions.— Vih^i  is  Rule  VIII?  Why  is  the  noun  in  apposition  used  ?  What 
is  Note  first?  Does  the  second  noun  agree  in  number  with  the  first?  May  an 
identifying  noun  be  identified?  Maya  clause  take  the  the  place  of  the  first 
noun?    What  is  Note  fifth  ?    How  may  distributive  pronouns  be  used? 


94  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Note  7. — Indefinite  pronouns  are  sometimes  used  in  apposition  partiticely;  (i.  e^ 
to  denote  a  part  of  the  number  denoted  by  the  noun  in  the  plural ;)  as,  "The 
boys  went,  some  to  town,  others  io  the  country."  "Some"  and  "others"  are 
both  in  apposition  with  "boys,"  and  each  denotes  only  apart  of  the  number  of 
boys;  while  together  they  exhaust  tJie  number. 

Note  8.— The  compound  pronouns,  each  other  and  one  another,  express  a  re- 
ciprocal action  or  relation;  as,  they  love  each  other.  "Each"  is  in  apposition 
distributively  with  "they,"  and  "other"  is  the  object  of  "love."  Each  other  is 
used  in  speaking  of  two. 

They  love  one  another.  "One"  is  in  apposition  distributively  with  "they." 
"Other"  is  the  object  of  "love."  "One"  distributes  the  number  included  in 
"  they."  "Another"  distributes  the  number,  and  shows  that  each  indirndual  is 
the  recipient  of  the  affection  expressed  by  "love." 

Note  9. — Two  or  more  nouns  in  the  singular  may  have  a  noun  in  apposition 
in  the  plural;  John,  James,  and  Joseph,  honest  boys,  have  come. 

Note  10. — Nouns  in  apposition  have  the  force  of  adjectives. 


PARSING. 

Dennis,  the  gardener,  gave  me  some  tulips. 

Model. —  Gardener  is  a  common  noun,  masculine  gender, 
third  person,  singular  number,  in  the  nominative  case  apposi- 
tion, according  to 

Rule  VIII,  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  identify  another 
noun  or  pronoun,  must  be  in  the  same  case,  called  apposi- 
tion. 

EXERCISE. 

Elisha  the  prophet,  lived  in  the  days  of  Joram,  king  of 
Israel.  Titus,  the  son  of  Vespasian,  destroyed  Jerusalem, 
the  Jewish  capital.  Hope,  the  star  of  life,  never  sets.  You 
write  very  carelessly,  a  habit  which  you  must  correct.  For 
ever  honored  be  this,  the  place  of  our  fathers'  refuge.  The 
court  condemned  the  criminals;  a  part  of  them  to  suffer 
death,  and  a  part  to  transportation.  Victoria,  queen  of  Eng- 
land, has  not  visited  this  country. 

Questions. — How  are  indefinite  pronouns  sometimes  used?  What  do  the 
compound  pronouns,  eacA,  o<Aer,  etc.,  express?  "What  is  note  ninth?  What 
force  have  nouna  in  apposition  ? 


SYNTAX.  95 

EXERCISE   TO   BE   CORRECTED. 

Brutus  killed  Cccsar,  he  who  had  been  his  friend.  (Say 
^'him  who/'  etc.j  because  Caesar  is  in  the  objective,  and  the 
pronoun  identifying  it  must  also  be  objective.) 

Romulus,  the  founder  of  Rome,  his  who  killed  his  brother, 
is  celebrated  in  history.  This  mantle  belongs  to  my  friend 
Annie,  she  who  was  with  me  yesterday.  This  is  my  aunt, 
her  who  lives  in  Atlanta.  Will  you  act  thus  towards  me,  I 
who  have  done  so  much  for  you  ? 

Rule  IX.     Pronouns  agree  with  the  nouns  for  which  they 

stand,  in  gender,  number,  and  person;  as,  "This  is  the  boy 

whom  I  saw." 

Explanation. — **  WhoTn"  is  a  relative  pronoun,  and  stands  for  its 
antecedent,  "boy,"  "with  which  it  agrees  in  gender,  number  and  person. 

Note  1.— The  rule  is  equally  applicable  to  personal  and  relative  pronouns ;  (see 
Lessons  on  pronouns.) 

Note  2. — The  antecedent  is  sometimes  a  clause,  or  a  phrase;  as,  "He  is  a 
thief y  and  he  knows  it."  "It"  stands  for  the  fact  in  the  clause.  "He  is  a 
thief." 

Note  3.— When  pronouns  refer  to  two  or  more  different  objects  connected  by 
a/id,  they  must  be  in  the  plural  number;  as,  "John  and  JuWa  have  returned; 
they  have  been  to  school."  "  They"  is  used  for  "  John  and  Julia ;"  hence,  plural. 
It  is  of  the  third  person,  and  is  necessarily  partly  of  both  genders. 

Note  4. — When  pronouns  refer  to  two  or  more  nouns  of  different  persons, 
they  take  the ^rst  person  rather  than  the  second,  and  the  second  rather  than 
the  third. 

Note  5. — Pronouns  referring  to  two  or  more  nouns  in  the  singular,  connected 
by  either,  or, neither, nor,  must  be  in  the  singular;  as,  "Either  John  or  James 
has  hurt  himself." 

Note  6. — Pronouns  referring  to  collective  nouns,  are  in  the  plural  when  they 
refer  to  the  individuals  composing  the  number;  as,  The  crowd  who  are  here. 

Note  7. — "It,"  when  followed  by  the  verb  "  to  be,"  may  refer  to  a  noun  of  any 
Srendcr,  number,  or  person ;  as,  "It  is  J."  "It  is  John."  "It  is  money."  "It  is 
money  and  men  that  we  need." 

Note  8. — Relatives  are  placed  as  near  as  possible  to  the  beginning  of  their 
clause ;  so  that  the  objective  case  and  the  predicate  nominative  precede  the 
verb ;  as,  "  There  is  the  man  whom  I  saw." 

Questions. — What  is  Rule  IX?  To  what  pronouns  does  this  rule  apply?  May 
the  antecedent  ever  be  a  clause?  What  is  the  numVjer  of  pronouns  referring 
to  two  or  more  nouns  connected  by  aadf    What  is  note  fourth?    Fifth? 


96  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

PARSING. 

/  am  the  man  who  commands  your  slaves. 

Model. — /  is  a  personal  pronoun,  first  person,  singular 
number,  and  in  the  nominative  case  to^'am,''  according  to 

Rule  I.  The  subject  of  a  finite  verb  must  be  in  the 
nominative  case. 

Who  is  a  relative  pronoun,  masculine  gender,  third  person, 
singular  number,  because  its  antecedent  maii  is,  with  which 
it  agrees;  it  is  the  nominative  case  to  ^'commands/'  accord- 
ing to  Rule  I. 

Your  is  a  personal  pronoun,  second  person,  singular  num- 
ber, in  the  possessive  case,  and  limits,  "slaves,"  according  to 

Rule  V.  The  possessive  case  limits  the  noun  with  which 
it  is  connected. 

EXERCISE, 

What  will  become  of  us  without  the  soothing  influence  of 
religion  ?  Those  only  act  wisely,  who  care  for  the  salvation 
of  their  souls.  I  determined  to  await  the  hand  of  death  j 
which,  I  hope,  when  at  last  it  comes,  will  fall  lightly  on  me. 
There  is  the  man,  whom  I  saw.  He  seeks  wealth;  which  is 
difficult  to  be  obtained.  Judas  (which  is  another  name  for 
treachery,)  betrayed  his  Master  with  a  kiss.  One  or  the 
other  must  relinquish  her  claim. 

ERERCISE   TO   BE   CORRECTED. 

/  know  he  to  be  a  man. 

[The  sentence  is  not  correct ,  because  the  pronoun  he  is  in 
the  nominative  case ;  it  should  be  in  the  objective  case,  be- 
cause it  is  the  subject*  of  a  verb  in  the  infinitive  mood.] 

*  Logical  subject. 


SYNTAX.  97 

The  court,  who  has  much  influence,  ought  to  be  exemphiry. 
He  instructed  and  fed  the  crowds  what  surrounded  him. 
Those  which  desire  peace  of  conscience,  should  be  careful  lo 
do  that  who  is  right.  Who,  instead  of  doing,  they  arc 
always  in  mischief.  Put  the  tongs  in  its  place.  The  de- 
fendant's counsel  had  a  difficult  task  imposed  on  it.  I  s^iw 
the  entire  cla^s  wipe  her  eyes.  This  court  is  famous  for  the 
justice  of  their  decisions.  Sarah,  nor  Jane  has  performed 
their  task. 

Rule  X.— An  adjective  or  participle,  used  as  a  modifier, 
belongs  to  the  noun  or  pronoun  which  it  limits;  as,  "  The 
good  man."     <^  Running  water." 

Explanation— Adjectives  or  participles  modify  the  meaning  of 
nouns  or  pronouns,  either  by  expressing  some  quality  or  restriciivf, 
the  meaning.  Thus:  " the "  restricts  "man,"  to  make  it  definito"; 
and  "good"  expresses  the   quality   of  goodness  as  belonging  to  the 


man. 


Note  l.-Any  part  of  speech,  sentence,  or  part  of  a  sentence,  used  as  a 
noun,  may  have  adjectives  belonging  to  it;  as,  «  To  visit  friends  is  pleasant." 
' Running  is  tiresome."    "  That  any  man  should  be  so  tvise,  is  encouragin-  " 

Note  2.-Adjectives  are  frequently  used  with  participial  nouns,  or  infinitives 
to  denote  an  abstract  idea,  without  reference  to  any  particular  object;  as,  "  7c 
6c  wicked,  is  to  be  loretched  "    "  Learning  is  useftil." 

NoTE3.-The  noun  which  the  adjective  limits,  ia  often  omitted;  as,  "The 
good  are  happy."  That  is,  "the  good  persons."  "Each  has  his  virtues."  That 
is,  '•  each  person." 

Note  4.-.In  contrasting  objects,  refer  to  the  first  mentioned  by  that  and 
those:  to  the  last,  by  this  and  these;  as,  "  TJiat  man  acts  wisely;  this  one  wick- 
edly." 

"  Farewell  my  friends  I  farewell  my  foes ! 
My  peace  with  these,  my  love  with  those." 

Note  5.-It  is  often  difficult  to  determine  whether  adjectives  or  adverbs 
should  be  used  after  verbs.  After  copula  verbs  use  adjectives;  and  when  to 
be,  or  to  become  can  be  substituted  for  any  other  verb,  without  changing  tho 
sense    or  construction,  «5e    the  adjectives;  as,  -"The  lily  smells  sweet;  (not 

Q«M^to«s.-Repeat  Rule  X.  How  do  adjectives  modifv  nouns?  To  what 
may  adjectives  belong  ?  How  are  adjectives  used  with  participles  and  infini- 
tives? Is  the  noun  ever  omitted?  In  contrasting  objects,  >vhat  is  the  use  of 
these,  that,  etc.  ?     After  what  verbs  should  adjectives  be  used  ? 

4 


98  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

sweetly,  for  that  would  imply  that  the  lily  had  the  power  of  smellino:,  since 
sweetly  means  vi  a  sweet  manner.)  We  can  say,  "  The  lily  is  sweet ;  "  hence,  uae 
the  adjective. 

Note  6. — Adjectives  are  sometimes  used  to  limit  the  meaning  of  other  adjec- 
tives; as,  "The  stove  is  red  hot."  '^ A  quick  sailing  vessel."  Such  should  be 
regarded  as  compound  adjectives,  whether  connected  by  hyphens  or  not. 

NoTK  7. — Adjectives  are  often  used  as  substantives,  particularly  when  prece- 
ded by  the  definite  article  or  the  demonstrative  pronouns.  They  even  take 
the  plural,  at  times ;  as,  "  The  good;  "  "  these  evils."  In  such  cases  the  noun  is 
omitted.    (Note  3.) 

Note  8.— Substantives,  or  phrases  coming  directly  before  substantives,  are 
often  equivalent  to  adjectives;  as,  "The  city  hall;"  "the  river  Thames." 

Note  9. — In  the  use  of  the  comparative  degree,  other  is  prefixed  to  the  second 
term  of  the  comparison,  if  both  terms  belong  to  the  same  class;  as,  "Socrates 
was  wiser  than  the  other  Athenians." 

Note  10. — Other  cannot  be  admitted  in  the  use  of  the  superlative  degree,  be- 
cause the  object  expressed  by  the  first  term  of  the  comparison  is  contained  in 
the  class  expressed  by  the  second  term;  as,  "Socrates  was  the  wisest  of  the 
Athenians,"  not  of  the  other  Athenians. 

Note  11. — Do  not  use  double  comparatives  or  superlatives;  as,  "more  better;'* 
"  most  strongest." 

Note  12.— Adjectives,  implying  number,  must  agree  with  their  nouns  in  num- 
ber ;  as,  "  This  sort."  These  apples."  When  the  adjective  is  necessarily  sin- 
gular, or  plural,  the  noun  should  be  made  so,  too;  as,  "TTsn  miles;"  '^one 
season.'' 

PARSING. 

The  good  are  happy. 

Model. —  The  is  a  limiting  adjective;  that  kind  called 
definite  article ;  it  points  out  the  noun,  persons  understoodj 
and  limits  it,  according  to 

Rule  X.  An  adjective  or  participle,  used  as  a  modifier, 
belongs  to  the  noun  which  it  limits. 

Good  is  a  qualifying  adjective;  good,  better,  best;  it  is  in 
the  positive  degree,  and  limits  the  noun,  persons  understood, 
according  to 

Rule  X.  An  adjective  or  participle,  used  as  a  modifier, 
belongs  to  the  noun  which  it  limits. 

Or,  good  is  an  adjective  used  as  a  noun,  third  person,  sin- 
gular number,  and  in  the  nominative  case  to  are,  according  to 

Questions.— Do  adjectives  ever  limit  adjectives  ?  Are  adjectives  ever  used  as 
substantives?  Do  substantives  ever  become  adjectives?  What  is  said  of 
other  in  the  use  of  the  comparative  degree  ? 


SYNTAX.  99 

Rule  I.  The  subject  of  a  finite  verb  must  be  iu  tlic  nom- 
inative case. 

EXERCISE. 

Choose  that  course  of  life  which  cahn  reflection  says  is  the 
most  excellent,  and  continued  practice  will  make  it  delight- 
ful. A  suspicious,  uncharitable  neighbor,  can  never  be 
treated  as  a  confiding,  charitable  one.  Kiotous  indulgence 
enervates  both  the  body  and  the  mind. 

"  Come,  let  us  leave  the  vain,  the  proud, 
The  ambitious,  and  the  worldly  wise ; 
Pomp's  revels,  turbulent  and  loud. 
And  pleasure's  tempting  vanities." 

How  beautiful,  how  glorious  are  the  works  of  creation ! 
To  see  the  rising  sun  is  pleasant.  Teaching  is  laborious. 
The  beautiful  are  not  always  useful.  I  see  two  men  j  that 
one  is  going,  this  one  is  coming.  She  has  bright  golden 
hair.     Silk  dresses  are  fashionable. 

Rule  XI.  A  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject  in  number 
and  person  ;  as,  "  I  sing,"  "  He  sings,"  "  They  sing." 

Explanation. — It  is  not  meant  that  the  verb  has  number  or  person, 
but  that  it  has  different  forms  to  accommodate  it  to  the  subject  in  these 
respects.  Thus,  we  say,  "The  boy  sings;"  ♦' The  boys  sing."  **Sings," 
we  say,  is  singular,  and  of  the  third  person,  because  its  subject, 
"boy,"  is  of  this  number  and  person.  "Sing"  is  plural,  and  of  the 
third  person,  because  its  subject,  "boys,"  is. 

Note  1. — If  the  subject  is  an  infinitive  or  a  clause,  the  verb  must  be  singular. 

Note  2. — When  the  subject  consists  of  two  or  more  singular  nominatives 
connected  by  and,  the  verb  must  be  plural;  as,  "Mary  and  Julia  are  here." 
"To  be  good,  and  to  be  useful,  arc  consistent  things."  In  this  sentence  the 
subject  consists  of  two  infinitives.  The  rule  holds  good,  whether  the  subjects 
arc  nouns,  infinitives,  or  clauses. 


Questions. — What  is  Rule  XI?    Does  the  verb  have  number  and  person? 
What  is  Note  1  ?    Note  2? 


100  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Note  3. — Two  or  more  singular  nominatives  having  and  between  them,  and 
some  word  to  sliow  that  they  are  not  taken  together,  liave  a  singular  verb;  as, 
"William,  and  not  John,  goes  to  school."  "  William,  and  also  John,  goes  to 
school."  In  each  of  these  sentences,  ''William"  is  the  subject  of  "goes,"  and 
"John"  is  the  subject  of  "goes"  understood.  The  verb  expressed,  in  such 
examples,  agrees  with  the  nominative  which  belongs  to  it.  If  its  nominative 
is  plural,  the  verb  must  be  plural,  etc. ;  as,  "  Mercies,  and  not  justice,  save  him." 

NoTB  4. — When  or  or  nor  connects  two  or  more  singular  nominatives,  the 
verb  is  singular;  as,  "An  apple,  or  a  peach,  lies  on  the  table." 

Note  5. — When  collective  nouns  include  the  whole  as  one  body,  they  take 
singular  verbs;  otherwise,  they  have  plural  Verbs;  as,  "The  company  seeks 
pleasure :"  that  is,  tlie  whole  company  considered  as  one  body.  "  The  company 
seek  pleasure  :"  that  is,  the  individuals  cornjiosing  it. 

Note  6. — If  nominatives  of  diflterent  persons  or  numbers  are  connected  by 
or  or  nor,  the  verb  agrees  with  the  nominative  nearest  to  it;  as,  "You  or  I  am 
ruined."    The  verb  is  understood  with  "you;"  as,  "  You  are  ruined." 

Note  7.— The  verb  often  appears  to  have  it  as  its  subject,  when  "it"  stands 
for  an  infinitive  mood,  or  a  clause ;  as,  "  It  is  pleasant  to  love."  "  It"  serves  to 
introduce  the  sentence,  and  appears  to  be  the  subject  until  we  reach  the  infini- 
tive, which  the  mind  readily  perceives  to  be  the  subject.  "  It,"  in  parsing,  should 
be  regarded  as  an  expletive,  (i.  e.,  as  not  necessary  to  the  sense,)  and  "to  love," 
the  subject  of  "t«."  "It  is  pleasant  to  see  the  sun."  "  To  see  the  sun  is  plea- 
sant." "To  see"  is  the  simple  subject.  "Sun"  is  the  object  of  "to  see."  The 
logical  subject  is,  "To  see  the  sun." 

Note  8. — A  verb  may  have  a  participial  clause,  or  the  fact  expressed  by  such  a 
clause,  as  its  subject;  as,  "His  being  a  stranger,  caused  him  to  be  regarded  with 
suspicion."  The  fact  implied  in  the  words,  "  His  being  a  stranger,"  is  the  sub- 
ject of  "  caused."  The  sense  may  be  readily  given  thus :  "  The  fact  that  he  was 
a  stranger,"  etc.,  where  "  that  he  was  a  stranger,"  is  in  apposition  with  "fact." 

Various  are  the  constructions  given  of  the  clause  above.  The  following 
seem  to  be  the  most  satisfactory :  "  Being  a  stranger"  may  be  considered  as  an 
abstract  noun;  while  "his"  limits  it.  Or  "being"  is  a  participle,  and  agrees 
with  the  personal  or  substantive  idea  in  "his;"  while  "stranger"  is  in  the  nomi- 
native after  "being."  Either  of  these  constructions  will  satifffy  the  conditions 
of  Syntax.  "Being  a  stranger"  is  the  grammatical  subject;  "His  being  a 
stranger"  is  the  logical. 


Questions. — When  the  singular  nominatives  are  connected  together  by  and, 
what  is  the  number  of  the  verb  ?  When  another  word  shows  that  they  are  not 
taken  together ?  Which  must  the  verb  agree  with?  When  singular  nomina- 
tives are  connected  by  or  or  7ior,  what  is  the  number  of  the  verb  ?  What  num- 
ber do  verbs,  whose  subjects  are  collective  nouns,  take?  If  nominatives  of 
diflferent  numbers  or  persons  are  connected  by  or  or  nor,  which  does  the  verb 
agree  with  ?  What  is  said  of  "  it,"  as  the  subject  of  verbs  ?  May  verbs  ever 
have  participial  clauses  as  subjects  ?  What  are  the  most  satisfactory  ways  of 
disposing  of  such  constructions? 


SYNTAX.  lOi 

PARSING. 

One   of  the  most   cheerful   objects   that   can   he  seen  is  the  bee  among 

spring  flowers. 

Model. —  Can  he  seen  is  an  irregular,  passive  verb;  pre- 
sent secj  past  saw,  past  participle  seen;  it  is  in  the  potential 
mode,  present  tense,  third  person,  and  singular  number,  be- 
cause its  subject,  "that,"  is,  with  which  it  agrees;  accord- 
ing to 

Rule  XI.  A  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject  in  number 
and  person. 

Is  is  an  irregular  intransitive  verb,  indicative,  present 
tense ;  and  in  the  third  person,  singular  number,  because  its 
subject,  "  one,"  is ;  according  to 

Rule  XI.  A  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject  in  number 
and  person. 

EXERCISE. 

Do  good  opinions,  which  are  unattended  by  consistent  con- 
duct, signify  any  thing?  Mark  the  effect  of  art  upon  a 
block  of  marble  :  how  the  skill  of  the  polisher  fetches  out 
the  colors,  makes  the  surface  shine,  and  discovers  every  orna- 
mental cloud,  spot,  or  veiu,  that  runs  through  the  body  of  it ! 
What  sculpture  is  to  a  block  of  marble,  education  is  to  a  hu- 
man soul.  Day  and  night  yield  us  blessings.  The  kindness 
of  friendship  is  tested  when  reverse  of  fortune  or  character 
affects  us.  "  He,  stooping  down  and  looking,  saw  the  linen 
clothes  lying;  yet  went  he  not  in."  You  or  John  is  mis- 
taken. John,  and  not  I,  made  the  correction.  His  being  a 
foreigner,  prevented  his  election.  Her  being  a  teacher, 
brought  sorrow  to  her  friends. 

EXERCISE   TO   BE    CORRECTED. 
You  is  welcome. 
[Not   correct,  because  is   does  not  agree  with  you)    say, 
you  arc  welcome.'^ 


102  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

He  think  himself  better  than  others.  Oh  !  beware,  lest 
you  yields  to  temptation.  What  are  he  doing?  When  is 
they  going?  The  reverses  of  fortune  is  often  attended 
with  the  loss  of  friends.  I  is  happy.  The  man  and  wo- 
man that  was  present  wondered  at  his  behavior. 

Rule  XII.  The  infinitive  mood  is  governed  by  the  prep- 
osition to;  as,  "John  desires  to  see." 

Explanation. — •'  See  "  is  governed  by  "  to."  "  To  "  is  ordinarily 
regarded  ns  the  sign  of  the  infinitive  mood,  or  as  an  auxiliary  verb. 
There  are  many  objections  to  either  of  these  views.  The  most  satis- 
factoi-y  explanation  is,  that  "  to  "  is  a  preposition. 

The  verb  following  "  to"  expresses  an  abstract  action  or  state ;  and 
"  to"  connects  that  action  or  state  to  some  preceding  word,  and  gov- 
erns it  as  its  object. 

Note  1. — Tlie  infinitive  may  be  connected  to  various  parts  of  speech;  as, 

1.  To  a  verb ;  us,  "  I  love  to  plan.'''' 

2.  To  a  noun;  as,  "You  have pervm^ion  to  go." 
•-.  To  a  pronoun;  as,  "I  know  him  to  be  honest." 

4.  To  a  participle ;  as,  "  Trying  to  sec." 

5.  To  an  Adverb ;  as,  "  He  is  well  enough  to  study." 

6.  To  a  conjunctive;  as,  "He  is  wiser  than  to  do  thisJ" 

Note  2. — The  infinitive  with '-to"  has,  besides  the  meaning  denoted  by  tlie 
vfrb,  various  significations : 

1.  It  denotes  a  purpose;  as,  "I  came  to  see." — (that  I  might  see.) 

2.  It  denotes  cause:  as,  i  rejoice  to  learn  this;  {because  I  learn  this;  or,  more 
i  roporly,  the  fact  implied  in  "to  learn  this,"  is  the  reason  or  cause  of  my  re- 
j  icing.) 

3.  It  denotes  an  occupation  or  employment ;  as,  "he  delights  to  study." 
Note  3. — The  infinitive  sometimes  has  a  logical*  subject  in  the  objective  case; 

as.  He  ordered  me  to  go.    "To  "  connects  "me"  and  "go,"  governing  "go"  as 
its  oliject. 

Questions. — What  is  Rule  XII?  How  is  "to"  ordinsirily  regarded?  What  is 
tlie  most  satisfactory  explanation  ?  What  does  the  verb  following  "to"  ex- 
press ?  What  is  the  office  of  "  to  ?"  To  what  may  the  infinitive  be  connected  ? 
What  significations  has  the  infinitive  with  "  to?"  What  is  said  of  the  subjeet 
of  the  infinitive  ?    What  is  meant  by  "logical"  subject,  as  explained  below? 

*  The  word  "logical"  is  not  used  in  the  sense  previously  defined,  includ- 
ing the  grammatical  subject,  (and  its  modifiers;)  but  it  is  used  simply  to 
denote  that  the  person,  or  thing,  connected,  by  "to"  to  the  verb  following  it,  is 
the  person  or  thing  that  must  be  the  agent  of  the  act  or  state  denoted  bj'  the 
verb.    Allowing  that  "to"  governs  the  infinitive,  this  same  infinitive  does  not 


SYNTAX.  103 

Note4.— "To,"  before  the  infinitive,  sometimes  has  no  antecedent  term  (ex- 
pressed,  nor  can  one  always  be  readily  supplied)  to  complete  the  relation;  as, 
To  love  is  pleasant.  "  To "  has  no  antecedent  word,  to  which  it  can  connect 
"love."  Such  constructions  are  indefinite  or  univerttal,  it  being  true  of  every 
one,  that  ''to  love  is  plca^ant.'^  Hence,  the  action  denoted  by  "love"  may  be 
referred  to  "any  one,"  or  some  general  word  denoting />crson,  or  persons. 

Another  Example.—"  To  be  candid,  I  am  in  fault."  "  To"  connects  the  state 
denoted  by  "  be  candid"  to  "  I"  or  '•  me"  understood.  "  Candid"  is  a  predicate 
adjective  aft-er  "be,"  and  agrees  with  "  I"  or"  me"  understood.  "  To  be  can- 
did"—!/ I  must  be  candid,  or  for  me  to  be  candid.  In  all  such  constructions,  the 
adjective  agrees  with  a  noun  or  person  understood  in  the  same  part  of  the  sen- 
tence. 

The  infinitive  used  as  in  the  preceding  example  is  sometimes,  though  im- 
properly, called  the  "  infinitive  absolute."  If  the  construction  above  given  is 
correct,  the  infinitive  has  its  (logical)  subject  understood,  and  is  governed  by 
the  preposition. 

Remark.— This  disposition  of  the  infinitive  does  not  prevent  it  from  being 
the  subject  of  the  finite  verb.  In  the  sentence  above,  "  To  love,"  or  "  for  one 
to  love,"  is  the  subject  of  "ts;"  while  "pleasant"  agrees  with  "  to  love." 

Note  5.  — The  verbs  dare,  need,  bid,  hear,  make,  feel,  do,  have,  let,  see,  may,  can, 
will,  shall,  7nust,  are  followed  by  the  infinitive  mood  without  the  preposition 
"to;"  as,  "Dare  you  (to)  speak;"  "They  need  not  (to)  come;"  "I  hear  the 
horse  (to)  neigh." 

Tlie  preposition  is  usually  used  with  the  passive  form  of  these  verbs;  as, 
"  He  teas  heard  to  say  this." 

EXAMPLE    PARSED. 

Boi/s  love  to  play. 
Play  is  a  verb  in  the  infinitive  mood,  present  tense.      To 
is  a  preposition  connecting  love  and  j^lay.     Play  is  governed 
by  to. 

Rule  XII.  The  infinitive  mode  is  governed  by  the  prepo- 
sition to. 


^  Questions.— Does  the  infinitive  mood  affirm  or  assume  its  action  ?  Repeat 
Note  4.  What  is  the  antecedent  term  of  the  relation  in  the  sentence,  "  To  love 
IS  pleasant"?    Parse  "to."    Give  the  Remark. 

admit  of  any  other  grammatical  government;  yet  as  every  action  must  have  an 
actor,  the  infinitive,  though  grammatically  governed  by  the  preposition  "  to," 
must  be  referred  to  some  actor,  or  agent;  and  it  is  clear  that  it  can  be  referred 
to  nothmg  but  the  objective  ca,se  (of  the  noun  or  pronoun)  which  precedes  "to" 
Such  being  the  connection  between  the  infinitive  following  "to"  and  the  objec- 
tive case  preceding  "  to,"  it  is  not  improper  to  call  the  objective  case  the  subject 
of  the  xnAmtive.  It  is  proper  to  state  that  the  iniimtive  doc*  not  affirm,  but  as- 
sumc$. 


104  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE. 

Newton  did  not  wish  to  obtrude  his  discoveries  on  the 
public.  They  need  not  call  on  her.  Whom  have  I  so  much 
reason  to  love  as  this  i'riend  ?  You  have  reason  to  dread  his 
wrath.  To  sleep  is  refreshing.  We  should  fear  and  obey 
the  One  who  has  power  to  reward  or  punish  us.  You  ought 
to  solicit  him  to  do  a  kind  action.  You  dare  not  do  so.  I 
heard  him  announce  it. 

Rule  XIII.  Adverbs  modify  verbs,  participles,  adjectives, 
and  adverbs;  as,  "He  writes  well."  ^^ Abusing  him  cruelly." 
"This  apple  is  very  sweet.''     "John  spells  very  badly.'' 

Explanation. — Adverbs  affect  the  meaning  of  the  words  with 
which  they  are  connected  ;  thus,  "well"  specifies  the  manner  of  action 
\\i  "writes,"  by  informing  us  how  "he  writes."  "Cruelly"  specifics 
I  lie  character  of  the  act  expressed  by  the  participle  "abusing." 
"Very"  increases  the  quality  denoted  by  "sweet;"  and  in  the  last 
example,  "very"  intensifies  the  meaning  of  "badly." 

Note  1. — In  parsing,  adverbs  should  always  be  referred  to  their  classes.  (See 
Lesson  XXV,  Part  1.) 

Note  2. — Adverbs  sometimes  modify  prepositions ;  as,  "  He  went  almost  to 
town."  "  He  went  to  town,"  implies  that  he  reached  the  town ;  but,  "  He  went 
almost  to  town,"  implies  that  he  stopped  shortly  before  reaching  it.  Hence  "al- 
most" diminishes  the  regular  import  of  "to." 

Note  3. —  Yes  and  no  are  used  independently  in  answering  questions,  and  a,re 
equivalent  to  entire  sentences.  Thus,  "  Will  you  go  ?"  "  Yes."  /  wiU  go. 
"Has  he  come?"  "No."  He  has  not  come.  In  parsing  "yes"  and  "no,"  in 
such  cases,  it  is  hardly  proper  to  consider  them  as  mere  adverbs ;  for,  if  a  verb 
be  supplied,  "  yes"  should  be  omitted,  unless  the  verb  is  added  to  emphasize 
or  limit  "  yes."  Thus,  "  Will  you  come  ?"  "  Yes,  I  will  come."  "  I  will  come," 
is  used  to  emphasize  "  yes,"  and,  in  some  such  cases,  to  explain  what  it  means. 

No  may  be  regarded  as  an  abbreviation  of  not,  and  as  modifying  a  verb  un- 
derstood ;  as,  "  Do  you  hear  ?"    "  No :"  1.  e.,  I  do  not  hear. 

Note  4. — Adverbs  are  sometimes  used  as  nouns;  in  which  cases  they  must  be 
parsed  as  nouns  ;  as,  "  He  remained  a  great  while" — a  great  or  long  time. 

Note  5. — Adverbs  are  sometimes  used  as  adjectives,  and,  when  so  used,,  must 
bo  parsed  as  adjectives ;  as,  "  The  above  lines  will  inform  you."  "Above"  may 
qualify  written  understood ;  but,  according  to  the  use  now  made  of  it,  it  must 
bo  regarded  as  an  adjective. 

Note  6. — Some  adverbs  fill  the  double  office  of  adverbs  and  conjunctives  ;  as, 
*'  I  was  reading  token  you  came."    Here  "when"  is  an  adverb  of  time  referring 


SYNTAX.  105 

to  both  verbs,  "was  reading"  and  -  came."    "  When'— at  the  time  at  which.    It 
also  serves  to  connect  "you  came"  to  "was  reading." 

Note  7.— Two  negatives  should  not  be  used  with  the  same  verb,  unless  an 
affirmation  is  meant;  as,  "Nor  did  they  not  perceive  their  evil  plight." 

Note  8.— Adverbs,  beside  their  influence  in  modifying  verbs,  participles,  ad- 
jectives, and  other  adverbs,  by  their  position  may  modify  nouns  or  pronouns 
also ;  as,  "  The  occurrence  frightened  me  espccinllyr  Here  "  especially"  modi- 
fies "frightened,"  and  emphasizes  "me,"  showing  who  was  particularb/ affwiod 
with  fmr.    Though  others  were  affected,  "me"  was  more  affected  than  others. 

NoTK  9.— Adverbs  should  be  placed,  m  sentences,  where  they  will  most  clear- 
ly indicate  the  true  meaning.  The  speaker  or  writer  must,  in  most  cases,  de- 
termine for  himself  as  regards  this  subject,  since  there  are  no  definite  rules. 

EXAMPLE    PARSED. 

lie  ate  rapidly. 

Rapidli/  is  an  adverb  of  manner :  it  limits  the  verb  atCj 
according  to 

Rule  XIII.  Adverbs  modify  verbs,  participles,  adjectives, 
and  other  adverbs. 


EXERCISE   TO   BE    PARSED. 

They  were  very  kindly  entertained.  He  found  her  not 
only  contented,  but  even  happy.  Here  is  your  most  respect- 
able coat.  Time  flies  rapidly.  Are  you  going  home  soon  ? 
Yes.  Do  you  return  ?  No.  Are  we  almost  there  ?  I  am 
particularly  interested.  Can  any  very  wise  man  expect  to 
live  here  always?  He  had  a  particular  carefulness  in  the 
knitting  of  his  brow,  and  a  kind  of  impatience  in  all  his  mo- 
tions, that  plainly  discovered  he  was  always  intent  on  mat- 
ters of  importance.  He  came  nearly  to  the  gate,  then 
changed  his  course. 

Our  early  days  !  how  often  back 
We  turn  on  life's  bewildering  track, 
To  where,  o'er  hill  and  valley,  plays 
The  sunlight  of  our  early  days. 


106  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Rule  XIV.  Prepositions  show  the  rehitions  between  their 
objects  and  the  words  on  which  they  depend;  as,  *' He  went 
to  Atlanta." 

Explanation.  —  "To"  shows  the  relation  between  "went"  and 
"Atlanta." 

NoTK  1. — The  office  of  a  preposition  is  to  introduce  the  object  which  is  reached, 
affected,  or  in  some  way  related  to  the  word  upon  wliich  the  preposition  dcpcuds. 
Tiio  proposition,  to^^ether  with  its  oVijcet,  serves  to  limit  the  antecedent  term  of 
the  rclntion.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "  He  went  to  Atlanta,"  ''to  Atlanta"  linnts 
'•went,"  and  answers  to  the  question,  WhereT  a.s,  "  Where  did  he  go?"  Ans. 
"  To  Atlanta." 

Note  2. — The  antecedent  term  of  the  relation  may  be  a  verb,  participle,  noun, 
pronoun,  adjective,  or  an  adverb:  the  latter  term  (which  completes  the  rela- 
tion, the  object)  may  be  a  noun,  pronoun,  participle  used  as  a  noun,  or  a  verb 
in  the  infinitive  mode. 

Note  3. — The  preposition  "to"  before  the  infinitive  used  as  a  subject,  has  no 
antecedent  term  expressed;  as,  "  To  hate  our  enemies,  is  wrong." 

Note  4. — The  preposition  '•  for,"  when  it  introduces  its  object  before  the  in- 
finitive, has  no  antecedent  term  expressed  ;  as,  ^'For  me  to  abide  in  the  flesh, 
is  more  needful  for  you." 

Note  5. — Either  term  of  the  relation  may  be  omitted. 

1.  The  antecedent  term;  as,  "  In  a  word,  I  will  not  do  it."  "I  s;iy"  maybe 
supplied  thus  :  "  I  say,  in  a  word,"  etc. 

2.  The  uhject,  or  subsequent  term  ;  as,  "  These  are  prniciples  we  ought  earnest- 
ly to  contend /or."  Supply ''which,"  thus:  "These  are  principles  for  which 
we  ought  to  contend." 

Note  6. — Sometimes  prepositions  have  the  force  of  adverbs,  when  their  ob- 
jects are  omitted ;  as,  "  He  has  gone  aboi'c.'" 

Note  7. — Two  prepositions  sometimes  come  together,  in  which  cases  they 
should  be  regarded  .is  compottnd  prepositions ;  as,  "  The  house  is  situated  over 
against  tlie  mountain."  "Over  against"  maybe  considered  as  a  compound 
preposition,  showing  the  two-fold  relation  which  "moimtain"  sustains  to 
"  house." 

Note  S. — Two  prepositions,  showing  different  relations,  may  liave  reference 
to  the  .same  object;  as,  "  He. boasted  of,  and  contended/or,  the  right :"  that  is, 
"  He  boasted  of  the  right,  and  contended  for  it." 

QMC5ftoH.s.— What  is  Rule  XIV?  Explain  it.  What  is  the  office  of  a  prepo- 
sition? What  does  the  preposition  and  its  object  do?  What  may  the  antece- 
dent term  be  ?  The  object?  What  is  .said  of  "to"  and  "  for  ?"  What  term  of 
the  relation  maybe  omitted?  When  do  prepositions  have  the  force  of  ad- 
verbs? What  is  said  of  compound  prepositions?  May  prepositions,  showing 
different  relations,  refer  to  the  same  object  ? 


SYNTAX.  107 

Odservation. — When  it  is  difficult  to  find  either,  or  both  fcorms  of  the  relation, 
the  following  directions  may  be  of  service  : 

1.  To  find  the  antecedent  term,  prefix  the  interrogative  ivhat  to  the  preposi- 
tion; thus,  "Heart  to  heart  responds."  We  ask,  "  What  to  heart?"  Answer: 
"  Responds."    "  Heart  responds  to  heart" 

2,  To  find  the  term  that  completes  the  relation,  place  what  or  whom  after  tho 
preposition ;  as,  "  I  know  not  the  man  I  gave  the  book  to." 

EXAMPLES   PARSED. 

He  was  skilful  in  many  languages,  and  had,  by  reading  and  composition, 
attained  the  full  mastery  of  his  own. 

In,  is  a  preposition,  and  shows  the  relation  between  "  skil- 
ful" and  '*  languages.'' 

IluLE  XIV.  Prepositions  show  the  relations  between  their 
objects  and  the  words  on  which  they  depend. 

By  is  a  preposition,  showing  the  relation  between  "  had 
attained"  and  ^^  reading  and  composition." 

Of  is  a  preposition,  showing  the  relation  between  '*  mas- 
tery" and  *'  language"  understood. 

EXERCISE   TO    BE    PARSED. 

Continue  to  walk  in  the  path  of  virtue.  By  innumerable 
threads  our  interests  are  interwoven.  We  must  not  confound 
frugality  with  parsimony.  The  prospects  of  many  a  youth 
are  blighted  by  self-conceit,  presumption,  and  obstinacy.  One 
of  the  greatest  arts  of  escaping  superfluous  uneasiness,  is  to 
free  our  minds  from  the  habit  of  comparing  our  condition 
with  that  of  others  on  whom  the  blessings  of  life  arc  more 
bountifully  bestowed,  or  with  imaginary  states  of  delight  and 
security,  perhaps  unattainable  by  mortals.  Clarendon  allows 
his  demeanor,  through  the  whole  proceeding,  to  have  been 
such,  that  even  those  who  watched  for  an  occasion  against 
the  defender  of  the  people,  were  compelled  to  acknowledge 
themselves  unable  to  find  any  fault  in  him. 

Question. — What  are  the  direction.'*  for  fin<ling  the  <<-rm  of  tho  relation? 


108  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

E.ULE  XV.  Conjunctives  connect  words  and  sentences;  as, 
"  Mary  and  Jane  study  well,  but  they  make  little  progress.'^ 

Explanation. — "And"  connects  "Jane"  to  "Mary"  in  such  a 
way  as  to  show  that  both  names  are  in  the  same  construction :  both 
lire  equally  the  subjects  of  "  study."  "And"  denotes  addition.  "  But" 
connects  the  two  members  of  the  sentence,  opposing  the  fact  in  the 
hitter  clause  to  that  in  the  former.     "But"  denotes  opposition. 

Note  1. — Conjunctives  are  often  properly  omitted ;  as,  "Wisdom,  (and)  virtue, 
and  knowledge,  are  jewels  of  priceless  value."  In  parsing,  supply  the  con- 
junctive. 

Note  2. — For  the  sake  of  emphasis,  both  is  sometimes  u.eed  to  introduce  the 
first  word,  and  and  the  second;  as,  "Both  John  and  Robert  were  present."' 
Either  and  neither  are  used  in  the  same  way;  as,  "Either  James  or  Joseph  will 
come."    "  Neither  Mary  nor  Susan  will  listen." 

Note  3. — "  That"  sometimes  introduces  a  sentence  as  the  subject  or  object  of 
a  verb ;  as,  "  That  you  are  deceived,  is  certain."  "  I  know  that  my  Redeemer 
liveth."  "That,"  preceded  bj'  '-so,"  or  '"such,"  denotes  a  consequence;  as, 
"  His  condition  was  such  that  he  was  compelled  to  submit." 

Note  4. — '"As,"  preceded  by  "so,"  and  followed  by  an  infinitive,  denotes  a 
consequence ;  as,  "  The  toil  is  so  great  as  not  to  be  endurable." 

Note  5. — There  is  often  an  ellipsis  after  than,  if,  and  though  ;  as,  "  His  burden 
is  greater  than  {that  [burden]  is  which)  he  is  able  to  bear."  "  He  desires  money 
more  than  (he  desires)  honor."  "  He  failed,  though  (he  was)  very  attentive  to 
business."    "  You  will  retaliate,  if  (you  should  be)  insulted." 

Note  6. — "Than,"  followed  by  "  whom,"  has  the  force  of  a  preposition;  as, 
"  Satan  than  xchoni,  Beelzebub  exCepted,  none  higher  sat."  Here  "  than"  serves 
as  a  conjunctive  coinplcmcntarj/  to  the  comparative  "  higher,"  and  also  as  a  pre- 
position.   There  is  no  other  case  like  this  in  the  language. 

Note  7. — Two  or  more  conjunctives  sometimes  come  together;  as,  "  But  if 
he  is  handsome,  he  is  not  smart."  "  If,"  denoting  a  condition,  (and  qualifying 
the  fact  in  the  first  clause,)  belongs  to  "  he  is  handsome  ;"  "but"  opposes  the 
fact  that  "  he  is  not  smart"  to  the  conceded  fact  that  "  he  is  handsome." 

Note  8. — After  the  comparative  degree,  (of  an  adjective  or  adverb.)  and  some- 
times after  "  other"  and  "  else,"  than  serves  to  bring  in  a  clause  to  complete 
the  thought ;  as,  "  John  js  taller  than  William  (is  tall.) 

Note  9. — "  But  that,"  "  but,"  and  "  lest,"  are  often  improperly  used  after  verbs 
and  adjectives,  denoting  doubt,  fear,  denial,  etc.;  as,  "  I  doubt  not  but  that  lie 
will  come."  It  is  better  to  say,  "  I  doubt  not  that  he  will  come."  "  I  fear  lest 
he  should  do  this,"  should  be,  "  I  fear  he  will  do  this." 

Questions. — What  is  Rule  XV  ?  Explain  the  example.  Are  conjunctives  ever 
omitted?  Why  and  how  is  "both"  used?  "  Either"  and  "neither?"  How  is 
"that"  used?  What  docs  "that"  denote  when  preceded  by  "so?"  When 
does '-as"  denote  a  consequence  ?  After  what  conjunctives  is  there  an  ellip- 
sis? When  has  "than"  the  force  of  a  preposition?  Do  conjunctives  ever 
come  together?    Trive  an  example. 


SYNTAX.  109 

EXAMPLE    PARSED. 
If  he  is  at  home,  give  him  the  letter. 
Model. — If  is  a  conditional  conjunctive. 

EXERCISE   TO   BE   PARSED. 

Apples  and  peaches  are  choice  fruit.  If  she  goes,  I  will 
remain.  If  he  but  touch  the  hills,  they  shall  smoke.  Love 
not  sleep,  lest  thou  come  to  poverty.  He  is  cither  at  home 
or  abroad.  She  neither  sews  nor  studies.  Though  he  fall, 
he  shall  arise  again.  Do  good  and  seek  peace.  The  rela- 
tions are  so  uncertain,  that  they  require  much  examination. 
Though  he  was  rich,  yet  for  our  sakes  he  became  poor.  Not 
only  his  property,  but  also  his  life,  was  in  danger. 

Rule  XVI.  Interjections  have  no  grammatical  construc- 
tion ;  as,  "Alas  !  I  am  undone." 

Note  1.— This  Rule  has  no  exception.  "When  the  objective  case  follows  an  inter- 
jection, it  may  be  governed  by  a  verb,  or  preposition,  understood  ;  or  it  may  be 
regarded  as  the  object  reached  or  affected  by  the  circumstance  that  (jives  rise  to  the 
feeling  denoted  by  the  interjection. 

Note  2.— After  interjections  an  omission  of  one  or  more  words  often  occurs; 
as,  "  O I  that  my  father  would  come."    Supply  "  I  wish  :"  thus,  "  O !  I  wish,"  ete. 

Note  3.— Interjections,  when  used  in  connection  with  other  words,  tend  to 
emphasize  the  whole  expression.  Thus  viewed,  they  are  very  nearly  allied  to 
adverbs. 

Note  4.— Interjections  are  sometimes  followed  by  prepositions ;  as,  "Alas  for 
me!" 

EXAMPLE     PARSED. 
Ah  me!  this  is  a  dreary  world. 
Model. — Ah  is  an  interjection  expressing  sorrow. 
Rule  XVI.  Interjections  have  no  grammatical  construc- 
tion. 

Me   is    a   personal  pronoun,   and   is  the   object  affected. 
Note  1. 

EXERCISE    TO    BE    PARSED. 

0  my  soul,  forget  him  not !     Ua  !  ha  !  so  you  are  caught. 


110  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Fie  !  fie  !  who  did  this  ?     Hurra  !  we  are  free.     Pshaw  !  he 
is  nobody.     Hail,  Columbia,  happy  land  !    Bravo  !  try  again. 
0  blissful  days  !     Ah  me  !  how  soon  yc  pass  ! 
*'  Thou  art,  O  God,  the  life  and  light 
Of  all  this  wondrous  world  we  see." 


REMARKS   ON    MOODS  AND    TENSES- 


No  specific  rules  of  much  practical  value  can  be  given  for 
the  use  of  moods  and  tenses.  In  constructing  sentences, 
judgment  must  be  exercised.  1.  If  we  wish  to  declare  a 
thing  as  a  fact,  or  deny  its  existence,  the  indicative  mode 
must  be  used.  2.  If  we  utter  a  command  or  entreaty,  the 
imperative  must  be  used.  3.  If  we  wish  to  express  a  thing 
as  what  may,  can,  must,  might,  could,  loould,  or  should  take 
place,  the  potential  must  be  used.  4.  If  the  action  is  to  be 
expressed  abstractly  or  indefinitely,  the  infinitive  is  used. 

TENSES — INDICATIVE. 

Note  1. — When  we  wish  to  express  a  fact  that  is  always  true,  we  use  the  pre- 
sent indicative ;  as,  "  Truth  is  mighty."         , 

Note  2. — To  express  what  took  place  in  past  time  indefinite,  or  what  teas  going 
on,  but  not  completed  in  past  time,  the  j^cust  tense  is  used. 

Note  3. — If  the  a,ct  has  been  completed  in  time  of  which  the  present  forms  apart, 
the  perfect  tense  is  used ;  as,  "  I  have  heard  it,"  (i.  e.,  a  moment  ago.) 

Note  4. — If  the  act  was  completed  before  sotne  other  event,  the  past  perfect  tense 
is  used  ;  as,  "  lie  had  come  before  I  left." 

Note  5.  —  X  future  action  is  expressed  by  the  future  tense;  as,  ''He  will 
read." 

Questions. — What  general  principles  should  govern  us  in  the  use  of  the 
moods?  When  should  we  use  the  present  tense  indicative?  The  past?  The 
perfect?    The  past  perfect ?     How  is  a  future  action  expressed ? 


WORDS  AS  DIFFERENT  PARTS  OF  SPEECH.     Ill 

Note  6.— A  future  act,  regarded  as  completed  at  or  1)cfore  eomc  future  time, 
is  expressed  by  the  future  perfect;  as,  "He  will  have  learned  his  lesson  before 
noon." 

Note  7. — A  present  condition  is  expressed  by  the  indicative  with  if,  though,  un- 
less, etc. ;  as,  "If  he  is  wise,  he  will  not  despise  reproof." 

Note  8. — A  future  condition  may  be  expressed  in  the  following  ways: — 1.  By 
the  future  indieati^w  with  a  conjunctive  ;  as,  "7/"  he  null  study,  (or,  if  he  study.) 
he  will  learn."  2.  By  the  past  potential  with  a  conjunctive ;  as,  "/f  he  should 
come,  he  would  be  rewarded." 

Remark. — The  same  general  principles  apply  to  all  the  moods. 


WORDS   USED   AS   DIFFERENT  PARTS 
OF   SPEECH. 


As  represents  three  parts  of  speech,  owing  to  the  manner 
in  which  it  is  used  : 

1.  As  is  an  adverb  when  it  limits  an  adverb  or  adjective 
in  the  sense  of  so  ;  as,  "  She  sews  as  well  as  she  can/' 

2.  As  is  a  relative  pronoun  when  it  follows  many^  swc/t,  or 
same ;  as,  *'  Such  soldiers  as  offered  themselves  were  ac- 
cepted/' 

3.  As  is  an  adverb  in  all  other  cases ;  as,  '^  They  practiced 
as  the}'  were  directed/' 

Both  represents  two  parts  of  speech  : 

1.  Both  is  an  adjective  when  it  means  two;  as,  ''Both 
boys  are  wicked/' 

2.  Both  is  a  covjunctlvc  when  followed  by  and ;  as,  "Both 
men  and  women  were  there." 

But  represents  three  parts  of  speech : 

1.  But  is  an  adverb  when  it  has  the  sense  of  only ;  as, 

Questions. — .\  future  act,  regarded  as  completed  at  or  before  some  future 
time  ?    A  present  rnndition  ?    A  future  condition  ? 


112  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

"  He  is  hut  (only)  hospitable." 

2.  But  is  a  preposition  when  it  has  the  sense  of  except ; 
a.s,  "All  but  (except)  Julia  went." 

3.  But  is  a  conjunctive  in  all  other  cases ;  as,  "I  ought 
to  go,  hut  it  is  raining." 

Either  represents  two  parts  of  speech  : 

1.  Either  is  a  conjunctive  when  it  corresponds  to  or ;  as, 
^'Either  Jane  or  John  will  go." 

2.  Either  is  a  distributive  pronoun  when  it  means  one  of 
the  two  ;  as,  "  You  may  visit  either  place." 

For  represents  two  parts  of  speech  : 

1.  For  is  a  conjunctive  when  it  has  the  sense  of  because  ; 
as,  "  I  believe  him,  for  he  will  not  deceive." 

2.  For  is  a  preposition  in  all  other  cases ;  as,  "  He  did 
that  for  me." 

Much  is  used  as  three  parts  of  speech  : 

1.  Much  is  a  noun  when  it  denotes  quantity;  as,  "To 
whom  much  is  given,"  etc. 

2.  Much  is  an  adjective  when  it  limits  a  noun ;  as,  '*3Iuch 
sorrow  casts  us  down." 

3.  Much  is  an  adverb  when  it  limits  a  verb,  adjective, 
participle,  or  an  adverb;  as,  "  He  is  jnuch  heavier  than  I." 

More  represents  three  parts  of  speech  : 

1.  More  is  a  noun -when  it  denotes  quantity ;  as,  "The 
more  we  have,  the  more  we  want." 

2.  More,  and  its  superlative,  most,  are  adjectives  when 
they  limit  nouns ;  as,  ^^3fost  men  have  more  vanity  than  they 
need." 

8.  More  and  most  are  adverbs  when  used  in  comparison; 
as,  "  This  lady  is  more  beautiful  than  that  one." 
That  represents  three  parts  of  speech  : 

1.  That  is  a  relative  pronoun  when  icho  or  which  can  be 
substituted  for  it ;  as,  "  The  girl  that  (who)  passed." 

2.  That  is  a  pronominal  adjective  when  it  points  out  a 


WORDS  AS  DIFFERENT  PARTS  OF  SPEECH.     113 

noun;  as,  ^^That  man  is  crazy." 

3.  That  is  a  conjunctive   in  all   other  cases;    as,  "She 
dances,  that,  she  may  be  admired." 

Then  represents  two  parts  of  speech : 

1.  Then  is  an  adverh  when  it  refers  to  time;  as,  <'  Did  he 
go  then  T' 

2.  Then  is  a  conjunctive  when  it  has  the  sense  of  there- 
fore; as,  "My  mother  commands;  then  I  will  obey." 

What  represents  four  parts  of  speech : 

1.  What  is  a  compound  relative  pronoun  when  it  means 
that  which,  or  the  thing  which;  as,  "  He  performed  xohat  be 
was  directed." 

2.  What  is  an  interrogative  pronoun  vflien  used  in  asking 
questions ;  as,  "  What  are  you  doing  ?" 

3.  What  is  n pronojninal  adjective  when  it  limits  a  noun; 
as,  ''  What  feats  he  performed  !" 

4.  What  is  an  interjection  when  used  to  express  wonder  • 
as,  ''What!  kill  myself!"  ' 


114  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


IDIOMS. 


An  idiom  is  a  mode  of  speech  peculiar  to  a  language,  and, 
in  most  instances,  involves  a  deviation  from  regular  gram- 
matiral  rule. 

The  following  are  the  principal  idioms  in  the  English  lan- 
guage : 

1.  ''If-/'  as,  "It  is  pleasant  to  see."  "It  is  I."  "It  is 
they."  In  the  first  example,  "  it"  is  a  pronoun  representing 
"  to  see,"  and  serves  as  the  subject  of  "  is,"  until  we  reach 
"  to  see,"  which  is  readily  perceived  to  be  the  real  subject 
of  "  is."  "  It,"  when  thus  used,  is  the  idiomatic,  expletive 
subject.  In  the  second,  "  it"  refers  to  some  indefinite  word, 
denoting  person  or  thing.  Thus,  in  the  question,  "  Who  is 
it?"  (i.  e.,  who  is  the  person?)  the  answer  is,  "It  [the 
person  you  inquire  after]  is  /,  or  heJ*  In  the  example,  "  It 
is  they,"  "  it"  refers  to  some  indefinite  noun,  viewed  without 
reference  to  number. 

2.  "Than;*'  as,  "John  Smith,  than  whom  there  is  not  a 
better  boy,  is  in  town."  "  Than"  serves  the  double  office  of 
a  conjunctive  and  a  preposition.  As  a  conjunctive,  it  brings 
in  the  second  term  of  the  comparison ;  as  a  preposition,  it 
governs  the  term  introduced. 

3.  "There;*'  as,  "There  are  men  of  merit  who  die  un- 
honored."  "  There"  was  originally  used  only  as  an  adverb 
of  j^/ace  ;  but,  in  cases  like  the  above,  it  has  lost  that  signi- 
fication, at  least  in  a  definite  sense.  "  There  is,"  or  "  There 
are,"  is  said  to  be  equivalent  to  "  exists,"  or  "  exist."    Thus, 

Qttea<ia?w{.— What  is  an  idiom?    What  of  "It?"    "Than?"    "There?" 


IDIOMS.  115 

"  Men  ^  exist/  or  live,  who/'  etc.  When  thus  used,  ^Hhere" 
serves  to  introduce  the  sentence,  while  the  subject  follows 
the  verb.  In  the  interrogative  form,  <^  there"  follows  the 
verb;  as,  "Are  tUerc  men  in  town?"  In  answer  to  such 
questions,  "there"  seems  to  have  something  of  the  force  of 
a  pronoun  ;  as,  "  There  are." 

4.  The  omission  of  the  preposition  : 

1st.  Before  "  home  /'  as,  "  He  went  (to)  home."  He  went 
to  his  home.  As  "to  home"  is  an  adverbial  element  of  the 
second  class,  "home"  may  be  parsed  as  an  adverb. 

2d.  Before  words  denoting  time  ;  as,  "  He  returned  (on) 
last  Sunday."     "  He  remained  (during)  a  month." 

3d.  Before  words  denoting  distance;  as,  "He  travelled 
(over,  or  through)  ten  miles."  Thfe  river  is  (to)  ten  feet 
deep,  (to)  one  hundred  yards  wide,  and  (to)  five  hundred 
miles  long.  "  (To)  ten  feet,"  "  (to)  one  hundred  yards/' 
and  "  (to)  five  hundred  miles,"  are  adverbial  phrases,  (second 
class  of  adverbial  elements,)  modifying,  respectively,  "  deep," 
"wide,"  and  "long." 

4th.  Before  the  infinitive;  as,  "I  heard  the  clock  (to) 
strike."     "  I  saw  the  man  (to)  run." 

5th.  Before  the  indirect  object  of  a  verb;  as,  "  He  gave 
(to)  me  a  book/' 

6th.  After  "worth/'  "like,"  "unlike/'  "nigh/'  as, 
"The  pen  is  worth  (to,  or  to  the  amount  of)  a  dollar." 
"  John  is  like  (to)  his  father,  but  unlike  (to)  his  mother." 
"Nigh  (to)  this  recess."  "To"  is  not  often  omitted  after 
"  nigh"  and  near. 

7th.  Prepositions  used  with  adjectives  and  adverbs;  as, 
"At  first" — at  the  Jir.st  time,  vine,  or  .si</hf,  etc.  "  On  high" 
— on  high  places.      "In  vain"  —  in  a  vain  manner.     Ad- 


QurstioTvi. — Bof(ire  wh.it  words  i.s  it  customary  to  omit  the  prepo.sition  "  to  ?" 
After  what  words  is  it  omitted  f 


116  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

verbs:  "At  once" — at  one  time.     All  such  expressions  are 
elliptical,  and  are  adverbial  elements  of  the  second  class. 

Below  are  given  some  idiomatic  sentences : 

1.  The  idea  of  his  being  a  foreigner^  is  ridiculous. 

There  is  great  variety  in  parsing  such  expressions  as  that 
italicized  above.     The  following  is  the  best  method  : 

*'  Being  a  foreigner,"  taken  together,  is  a  substantive  ex- 
pression, and  is  governed  by  "of."  "His"  is  a  pronoun  in 
the  possessive  case,  (used  as  an  adjective,)  and  limits  the 
substantive  idea  in  "  being  a  foreigner.^'  In  the  expression, 
^'  His  being  a  foreigner,"  "  being"  is  a  participle  agreeing 
with  theprrs(9;mZ  or  substantive  idea  in  the  pronoun  "his," 
viewed  without  strict  reference  to  case.  "  Foreigner"  is  the 
predicate  nominative  after  "being,"  Take  the  sentence, 
"Being  a  foreigner^  is  a  great  evil."  Here  "being  a  for- 
eigner," no  one  can  doubt,  is  the  subject  of  "is;"  and,  as 
such,  it  is  a  nouuy  designating  a  peculiar  state  of  being. 
"Foreigner"  is  the  nominative  after  "  being;"  and  as  the 
expression  is  indefinite,  or  general,  it  has  no  nominative  be- 
fore "  being,"  to  which  it  can  refer.  But  when  the  expres- 
sion is  made  definite,  by  prefixing  a  noun  or  pronoun,  then  it 
is  clear  that  "  foreigner",  refers  to  the  same  tlting  as  the 
noun  or  pronoun  prefixed.  Thus,  ^'John's  being  a  foreigner  j 
is  a  great  evil."  ^'  Foreigner"  must  refer  to  the  same  being 
as  "John's"  does.  The  diflSculty  in  such  expressions  is, 
that  the  same  case  does  not  follow  the  verb  that  precedes  it ; 
and  this  can  be  explained  only  in  the  way  above  suggested, 
that  tJie  noun  or  pronoun  is  referred  to  without  any  reference 

to  CASE. 

2.  "  For  me  to  study  is  pleasant." 


Qucs^iows.— Parse  "of  his  being  a  foreigner,"  each  word  separately.    Also, 
*'  For  me  to  study  is  pleasant." 


IDIOMS.  117 

Such  expressions  are  parsed  ia  different  ways : 

1st.  "For"  is  supposed  to  have  no  antecedent  term  of 
relation;  "nie"  is  governed  by  "for,"  and  is  the  subject- 
objective  of  "  to  study."  "  For  me  to  study"  is  the  subject  of 
"isj'  and  "pleasant"  is  the  predicate  adjective  agreeing 
with  "  for  me  to  study.'' 

2d.  "Me  to  study"  is  governed  by  "for."  The  rest 
parsed  as  above. 

3d.  "For"  shows  a  relation  between  "pleasant"  and 
"me;"  "to,"  preceding  "study,"  governs  it;  "to  study"  is 
the  subject  of  "  is,"  and  "  pleasant"  agrees  with  "  to  study." 

The  thought  can  as  well  be  expressed  thus :  "  It  is  plea- 
sant for  me  to  study ;"  or,  "  To  study  is  pleasant  for  me." 

The  latter  method  is  preferable : 

1st.  Because,  by  this  method,  every  word  has  a  plain 
grammatical  government. 

2d.  The  sense  requires  this  parsing.  By  the  first  and  se- 
cond methods,  "  pleasant,"  as  the  attribute  of  "  for  me,"  or 
"  for  me  to  study,"  is  used  in  an  abstract  sense  ;  when  the 
idea  designed  to  be  conveyed  is,  that  studying  is  pleasant  for 
me;  not  a  jyleasant  thing  generally,  as  is  expressed  by  the 
former  parsing. 

Question. — Give  all  the  ways  of  parsing. 


118  ENQLISU   ORAMiMAR. 


ANALYSIS. 


1.  Analysis  of  sentences  consists  in  pointing  out  and  nam- 
ing their  elements  or  constituent  parts.  Thus,  in  the  sen- 
tence, "  Mary  sings,"  **  Mary"  and  ''sings"  are  the  elements 
of  tlie  sentence.  They  2iXQ  principal  elements,  because  they 
are  necessary  to  the  formation  of  the  sentence.  The  gram- 
matical subject  and  predicate  are  the  principal  elements  in 
every  sentence. 

Suhordinate  elements  are  words,  phrases,  or  clauses,  used 
to  limit  the  subject  or  predicate. 

Elements  are  simple,  com,plex,  or  compound. 

A  simple  element  is  a  single  word;  as.  Good,  man,  well, 
love,  etc. 

A  complex  element  is  a  comhination  of  two  or  more  dis- 
similar simj^le  elements  ;  as,  Very  good,  a  very  good  man. 

A  compound  element  is  formed  by  uniting  two  or  more 
simple  or  complex  elements  of  the  same  kind ;  as,  Prudent 
and  wise  ;  gently  and  sweetly  ;  very  beautiful  and  exceedingly 
nice. 

Remakk.  —  Prepositions,  conjunctives,  and  interjections,  are  not 
considered  elements;  the  two  former  being  used  merely  to  aid  in 
forming  combinations  of  other  parts  of  speech,  while  the  latter  is 
used  independently. 

The  elements  used  are  sidjstantive,  verbal^  adjective,  and 
adverbial. 


Questions. — What  is  Analysis  ?  Wliat  arc  principal  elements  ?  Subordinate  ? 
Simple  ?  Complex  ?  Compound  ?  Remark  ?  How  many  kinds  of  elements 
nre  there  ? 


ANALYSIS.  119 

Of  the  substantive,  adjective,  and  adverbial,  there  are 
three  classes*  ;  Jirst,  second y  and  third. 

SUBSTANTIVE   ELEMENTS. 

1st.  A  substantive  element  of  i\iQ  first  class  is  a  noun  ;  as, 
Home,  man,  city,  Rome. 

2d.  A  second  class  substantive  element  is  the  preposition 
^'  to,"  and  the  infinitive,  used  as  the  subject  or  object  of  a 
verb  J  as,  "T^o  love  is  pleasant."     I  love  to  eat. 

3d.  A  substantive  element  of  the  third  class  is  a  proposi- 
tion used  as  the  subject,  attribute,  or  object  of  a  verb;  as, 
^^That  you  should  steals  is  remarkable."  "The  question  is, 
<  Who  told  you  T  "     "  He  knew  that  I  said  it.'' 

Note. — The  parts  italicized  are  used  as  substantives  or  nouns ;  hence,  they 
are  called  substantive  elements. 

ADJECTIVE    ELEMENTS. 

1st.  An  adjective  element  of  the  first  class  has  a  single 
adjective  word  as  the  base;  as,  Goodj  very  good.  A  very 
sweet  apple.  "Good"  is  the  base  of  "very."  "Sweet" 
is  the  base  of  "very;"  and  "apple"  is  the  base  of  "sweet." 

2d.  Second  class  consists  of  the  preposition  "  of,"  and  its 
object;  as,  A  man  of  yoodncss — Si  good  man. 

3d.  Third  class  is  a  relative  clause;  as,  "  The  man  7vho 
seeks  wisdom  finds  it."  "Who  seeks  wisdom"  is  an  adjective 
element  modifying  "man." 

Models. — "  Men  walk."  It  is  a  simple  sentence,  because 
it  contains  but  one  subject  and  one  predicate.  "  Men,"  a 
substantive  element  of  the  first  class,  is  the  subject.  "  Walk" 
is  the  predicate. 

"  I  know  wJio  you  are.''  This  is  a  complex  sentence,  be- 
cause it  has  a  proposition,  "  who  you  are,"  as  the  object  of 

Questions. — IIdw  many  classes  of  substantivo,  adjective,  and  adverbial  ele- 
ments ?  What  are  they  ?  Name  sulistantivc  elements  of  the  first,  second,  and 
third  classes.    Also  adjective.    WJiat  is  meant  by  "  base  V 

*  This  division  refers  to  degree  rather  than  kind. 


120  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

the  verb.  '^I'*  is  the  subject,  "know"  is  the  grammatical 
predicate,  and  '^  know  who  you  are"  is  the  logical  predicate. 
*'■  Who  you  are"  is  a  substantive  element  of  the  third  class, 
and  is  the  object  of  the  verb  "  know." 

"A  boy  of  honor  loves  his  mother  who  has  been  so  kind 
to  him."  This  is  a  complex  sentence.  "Boy"  is  the  gram- 
matical subject;  "a  boy  of  honor,"  the  logical;  "loves"  is 
the  grammatical  predicate,  and  "  loves  his  mother  who,"  etc., 
is  the  logical.  "Boy"  is  a  first  class  substantive  element,  lim- 
ited by  "  a,"  (a  limiting  adjective  of  the  first  class,)  and  "of 
honor,"  (an  adjective  element  of  the  second  class.)  "  Who 
has  been  so  kind  to  him,"  is  a  third  class  adjective  element 
limiting  "  mother." 

EXERCISES. 

God  is  love.  To  love  is  to  enjoy.  That  my  friend  should 
forsake  me  in  my  hour  of  need,  is  distressing.  The  opinion 
is  that  none  but  the  just  are  happy.  I  assure  you  that  this 
is  no  easy  task.  A  good  man  loves  justice.  A  very  beau- 
tiful maiden  is  in  town.  A  girl  of  modesty  is  indeed  beau- 
tiful. The  boy  whom  we  saw  yesterday  is  dead.  An  officer 
of  merit,  who  tries  to  do  his  duty,  will  not  receive  the  praises 
of  the  wicked.  A  good  boy  and  a  beautiful  girl  visited  us 
yesterday, -and  spent  most  of  the  day. 

ADVERBIAL     ELEMENTS. 

An  adverbial  element  is  a  word,  phrase,  or  clause,  used 
to  express  some  circumstance  of  time,  place,  cause,  manner, 
etc. 

There  are  three  classes  of  adverbial  elements : 
1st.  First  class  are  those  that  have  a  single  word  for  a 
base ;  as,  quickly ^  very  loell,  now. 


Questions.— \y hat  is  an  adverbial  element?    How  many  classes  ?    What  is  an 
adverbial  element  of  the  first  class  7 


ANALYSIS.  121 

2d.  Second  class  consists  of  a  preposition  ("of"  excepted) 
and  its  object;  as,  "  He  studies  with  care." 

3d.  Third  class  consists  of  a  clause  introduced  by  an  ad- 
verb of  time,  place,  etc.,  or  a  conjunctive;  as,  ^*  She  was 
reading  when  he  came.*' 

Note  1. — Adverbial  elements  of  the  third  class  denote  : 

1st.  Place. — 1.  Motion  to.  2.  Motion  from.  3.  Rest  in 
a  place. 

2d.   Time. — Its  various  modifications. 

3d.  Planner. — When  the  predicate  is  compared  with  that 
of  the  subordinate  clause ;  as,  '^  Do  unto  others  as  you  would 
that  they  should  do  unto  you.'* 

Such  clauses  denote : 

1.  Likeness;  as,  ^'As  is  the  teacher,  so  arc  his  pupils." 

2.  Result;  as,  "He  is  so  lame  that  he  cannot  walk." 

3.  Equalitt/,  or  inequality  in  magnitude ;  as,  "  James  is 
as  tall  as  John."     "John  is  taller  than  William." 

4.  Causal.  —  These  may  be  divided  into  the  following 
classes : 

1st.  Direct  causals — such  as  are  introduced  by  because,  as, 
for,  since,  whereas,  inasmuch  as :  to  these  may  be  added  the 
following,  which  denote  inference;  viz.,  therefore,  wherefore, 
whence,  consequently,  and  then,  (used  as  therefore.)  Thus, 
^'Because  he  trusteth  in  thee  thou  wilt  keep  him  in  perfect 
peace." 

2d.  Adversative — such  as  are  introduced  by  hut,  yet,  how- 
ever, nevertheless,  notwithstanding.  These  denote  opposition, 
or  introduce  a  clause  or  word  opposed  to  what  precedes ;  as, 
"  She  is  pretty,  hut  not  smart." 


Questions.— Vi hoi  ia  an  adverbial  element  of  the  second  class  T  Third  7  How 
do  adverbial  elements  of  the  third  class  denote  placer  Time?  Manner  f 
What  do  such  clauses  denote  ?  How  may  causals  be  divided  ?  By  what  are 
direct  causals  introdufrd  ?    Advor.'^alivo  ? 


122  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

3d.  FinaU — such  as  denote  an  end,  purpose,  or  design  ; 
such  as  are  introduced  by  that,  that  noty  lest;  as,  <' He 
studies,  that  he  mai/  learn.'' 

4th.  Conditionals — such  as  are  introduced  by  if,  though, 
and  although,  (conceding  a  fact  as  true;)  as,  ^'■If  it  rains, 
she  will  not  come."  ^^  Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  in 
him.'^ 

MODEL. 

The  very  beautiful  girl  came  in  great  haste  when  I  called. 
This  is  a  compound  sentence.  "  When  I  called"  is  the 
subordinate  clause,  and  the  rest  of  the  sentence  the  principal 
clause.  "  The  very  beautiful  girl"  is  the  logical  subject,  and 
'^came  in  great  haste  when  I  called"  the  logical  predicate. 
^'  Girl"  is  the  grammatical  subject :  it  is  limited  by  "  the," 
an  adjective  element  of  the  first  class:  it  is  also  limited  by 
"  very  beautiful,"  a  complex  adjective  element  of  the  first 
class.  "  Beautiful"  is  the  base,  and  is  limited  by  '^  very,"  a 
simple  adverbial  element  of  the  first  class.  *'  Came,"  the 
grammatical  predicate,  is  limited  by  '^  in  great  haste,"  a  com- 
plex adverbial  element  of  the  second  class.  "  In  haste"  is 
the  base,  and  "haste"  is  limited  by  ''great,"  an  adjective 
element  of  the  first  class.  "  Came"  is  also  limited  by  "  when 
I  called,"  an  adverbial  element  of  the  third  class.  ''  When" 
introduces  the  clause;  "I"  is  the  subject,  and  "called"  the 
predicate. 

EXERCISE. 

She  acted  very  imprudently.  The  good  man  was  very 
glad  when  he  returned.  The  boy  was  sent  to  town,  yester- 
day, in  haste.  He  came  to  call  the  physician.  The  boat 
sailed  from  Charleston  to  Mobile.  The  badly  cheated  mer- 
chant was  moved  to  anger  when  he  was  found.     You  must 

Questions.— By  what  arc  Finals  introduced  ?    Conditionals  T 


ANALYSIS.  123 

go  home  quickly.     He  walked  rapidly  from  the  store,  where 
he  had  been  insulted. 

OBJECTIVE  ELEMENTS — SUBSTANTIVE. 

An  objective  element  is  a  word,  phrase,  or  clause,  used 
to  complete  the  meaning  of  a  transitive  verb,  or  its  parti- 
ciple. 

Objective  elements  are  of  three  classes  : 

1st.  First  class — in  which  the  base  is  a  single  word;  as, 
"  He  loves  Mary  J  ^ 

2d.  Second  class — a  phrase  used  to  complete  the  meaning 
of  a  transitive  verb ;  as,  *'  I  wish  to  speak." 

3d.  Third  class — a  clause  used  to  complete  the  meaning 
of  a  transitive  verb ;  as,  "  I  know  that  he  will  come." 

MODEL. 
He  knows  that  I  love  him. 
^*  He"  is  the  grammatical  subject,  and  '^  knows  that  I  love 
him"  the  logical  predicate.  *'  Knows,"  the  grammatical  pre- 
dicate, is  limited  by  ''that  I  love  him,"  an  objective  element 
of  the  tliird  class.  "That"  is  the  connective,  "1"  the  sub- 
ject, and  'Move  him"  the  predicate.  "Love"  is  limited  by 
"  him,"  an  objective  clement  of  the  first  class. 

EXERCISE. 

They  write  good  letters.  Does  he  love  me  ?  Do  you  love 
to  play?  He  trained  the  horses  to  move  rapidly.  Study 
your  lesson.  They  began  to  sing.  The  ambassador  desired 
to  have  an  interview.  Cadmus  taught  the  Greeks  to  use  let- 
ters. He  intimated  that  our  services  would  soon  be  needed. 
They  say  that  they  bought  it.  Will  you  tell  me  whom  you 
saw  ? 


Qucstivus.—Vihat  is  au  objective  element  ?    How  many  classes  ?    What  is  an 
objective  element  of  the  first  class  T 


124  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

MODIFICATIONS    OP   THE    SUBJECT   AND   PREDICATE. 

I.  Since  there  are  but  two  principal  elements  in  a  sentence 
— the  subject  and  2>rcdica(e — all  other  words  must,  in  a  gram- 
matical point  of  view,  be  subordinate  to  these.  The  subject 
may  be  modified  : 

1st.  By  an  adjective  element  of  the  first  class;  as,  "The 
man  loves." 

2d.  By  an  adjective  element  of  the  second  class;  as,  "The 
man  of  industri/  prospers." 

3d.  By  an  adjective  element  of  the  third  class ;  as,  "  The 

lady  who  visited  the  city  is  dead." 

Note. — These  modifying  elements  may  themselves  be  variously  modified  by 
adverbial  and  adjective  elements  of  different  classes. 

II.  The  predicate  may  be  modified  : 

1st.  By  an  adverbial  element  of  the  first  class ;  as,  "  He 
came  quickly.'^ 

2d.  By  an  adverbial  element  of  the  second  class ;  as,  "  He 
came  in  haste.'' 

3d.  By  an  adverbial  element  of  the  third  class;  as,  "lie 
was  sleeping  lohen  I  came." 

III.  It  may  be  limited  : 

1st.  By  an  objective  element  of  the  first  class ;  as,  "  You 
saw  him." 

2d.  By  a  second  class  objective  element;  as,  "I  love  to 
study." 

3d.  By  a  third  class  objective  element;  as,  "I  know  that 
you  are  deceived." 

Note. — These  subordinate  elements  may  be  themselves  modified. 

Remark. — This  brief  chapter  on  Analysis  is  given  for  the  benefit 
of  those  who  may  not  be  able  to  study  that  subject  in  large  works. 

QueMions. — Name  the  principal  elements.  To  what  are  all  other  words  sub- 
ordinate ?  How  may  the  subject  be  modified?  May  subordinate  elements  be 
modified?  How  may  the  predicate  be  modified?  How  may  the  predicate  be 
limited  by  objective  elements  ?    May  these  elements  be  limited  ? 


AURANQEMENT.  125 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  WORDS  OF 
SENTENCES. 


The  arrangement  of  words  in  a  sentence  is  the  position 
which  they  take. 

Arrangement  is  of  two  kinds — N^adwal  and  Rhetorical,  or 
Inverted. 

NATURAL    ARRANGEMENT. 

Rule  1.  In  declarative  sentences,  the  natural  order  is  to 
place  the  suhject  before  the  predicate,  the  auxiliary  before 
the  principal  verb,  and  the  copula  before  the  attribute  ]  as, 
"Susan  writes."     "John  will  read."     "Life  is  short." 

Rule  2.  In  direct  interrogative  sentences,  the  auxiliary 

or  copula  comes  first,  the  subject  next,  and   the  principal 

verb  or  attribute   last;    as,   "Will  you  assist?"  "Is  she 
sleeping  ?" 

Rule  3.  In  indirect  interrogative  sentences,  the  word 
which  asks  the  question  comes  j^rs/,  and  the  other  parts  are 
arranged  as  in  direct  interrogative  sentences )  as,  "  When 
did  he  die?" 

Note. — When  the  attribute  is  the  thing  inquired  for,  it  8hould  precede,  and 
the  subject  follow,  the  copula ;  as,  "  How  hirjh  is  the  tower  ?" 


Questions. — What  is  arrangement?  How  many  kinds?  What  is  the  natural 
order  in  declarative  sentences?  In  direct  interrogative  sentences?  In  indi- 
rect ?    When  the  .attribute  is  the  object  of  inquiry,  where  should  it  l>e  placed  ? 


126  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Rule  4.  In  imperative  sentences,  the  subject  is  placed 
after  the  predicate,  or  between  the  copula  and  attribute;  as, 
"  Hear  thou."     "  Be  ye  silent." 

Rule  5.  In  dependent  clauses,  the  connective  comes  Jirst, 
the  subject  nexty  and  (he7i  the  predicate;  as,  "I  was  dream- 
ing when  you  came.'* 

Rule  6.  Adjective  elements  of  the  frst  class  precede  the 
nouns  which  they  limit;  but  those  of  the  second  and  third 
classes  follow  the  nouns  which  they  limit;  as,  ^^ Prudent 
men" — men  of  prudence — men  who  are  prudent. 

Rule  7.  Objective  elements  follow  the  verbs  which  they 
limit;  as,  '' He  studies  Xa?m."  " He  loves  ^o  s/?/Y7y."  ''lie 
says  that  he  will  atudy." 

Rule  8.  An  adverbial  element  is  placed  after  the  word 
which  it  limits;  as,  ''He  reads  iceU." 

Note. — The  adverbs  very,  more,  most,  and  some  others,  usually  precede  tlie 
words  they  Umit ;  as,  "  Very  good  men." 

rhetorical  arrangement. 

The  elements  may  be  variously  transposed,  for  the  sake  of 
emphasia,  heuufi/,  taste,  etc.  No  definite  rules  are  given  for 
their  transposition. 


Questions. — What  is  the  natural  order  in  imperative  sentences  ?  What  is  tlie 
arrangement  in  dependent  clauses?  How  are  adjective  elements  arranged? 
Objective  elements  ?  Adverbial  elements  ?  What  is  said  of  rhetorical  arrange- 
ment 2 


PUNCTUATION.  127 


PUNCTUATION. 


Punctuation  is  the  art  of  dividing  written  language  by 
means  of  jjoints,  so  as  to  show  the  relation  of  words  and 
clauses,  and  clearly  indicate  the  meaning. 

Note.— In  speaking,  these  relations  are  indicated  by  the  pauses  and  inflec- 
tions of  the  voice. 

The  objects  of  Punctuation  are  three :  1.  To  indicate  the 
sknse;  2.  To  indicate  the  sense  loith  YORGE  or  ^T^A\3TY )  3. 
To  indicate  it  with  CONVENIENCE. 

The  first  is  the  most  important  of  these  principles.  The 
second  belongs  mainly  to  Rhetoric,  and  involves  the  two 
principles — 1.   Ellipsis;    2.    Transposition. 

Note  1.— Ellipsis  is  the  omission  of  a  word ;  as,  "  John,  Susan,  Henry  and 
Anna  arc  present."  Aiul  is  omitted  between  "John"  and  "Susan,"  "Susan" 
and  "  Henry." 

Note  2. —  Traji^position  is  changing  the  natural  arrangement  of  words  in  a 
sentenf^e ;  as,  "  To  those  who  labor,  sleep  is  sweet."  The  natural  order  is, 
"Sleep  is  sweet  to  those  who  labor." 

Convenience  is  the  use  of  the  first  letter  of  a  name  for  the 
name  itself,  or  an  abbreviated  form  of  a  word  for  the  word 
itself;  thus,  instead  of  "John  Willis  Smith,"  we  write  '^ J. 
W.  Smith,"  etc. 


Questinn/f. — What  is  punctuation  7  How  are  the  relations  indiratod  in  speak- 
ing? What  are  the  objects  of  punotuation  ?  Wliich  is  the  most  important  f  To 
what  does  the  second  belong?  What  is  Ellipsis?  Transposition?  What  is 
meant  by  convenience  ? 


128  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

POINTS. 

The  points  used  in  punctuation  are  the  comma  (,),  the 
semicolon  (;),  the  colon  (:),  the  period  (.),  the  interrogation 
point  (?),  the  exclamation  point  (!),  the  dash  ( — ),  and  others 
loss  frequently  used. 

Note  1. — The  comma  denotes  the  shortest  pnuse ;  the  semicolon,  n  pause 
twice  that  of  the  comma;  the  colon,  twice  that  of  the  semicolon;  the  period, 
twice  that  of  the  colon.  The  interrogation  and  exclamation  points  may  denote 
n  pause  equal  to  the  comma,  semicolon,  colon  or  period. 

Note  2. — The  length  of  any  of  these  pauses  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the 
composition. 

THE   COMMA. 

Rule  1.  When  several  words  are  together  used  as  the  sub- 
ject of  a  verb,  they  are  usually  separated  from  it  by  a 
comma;  as,  ^^Her  heing  a  stranger,  excluded  her  from  the 
circle."  ^^That  one  shoidd  tell  a  deliberate  falsehood,  is 
.strange." 

Rule  2.  The  members  of  compound  sentences  are  gene- 
rally separated  by  a  comma;  as,  "John  studies  well,  and 
learns  rapidly." 

Note  1. — When  the  members  are  short  and  closely  connected  in  sense,  they 
are  not  separated ;  as,  "  Love  is  better  than  sacrifice." 

Note  2.  —  The  relative  clause,  used  in  a  restrictive  sense,  should  not  bo 
pointed  off;  as,  "  The  principle  which  you  advocate,  is  just." 

Rule  3.  All  words,  phrases,  or  clauses,  used  independ- 
ently, or  absolutely,  are  separated  by  the  comma  from  the  rest 
of  the  sentence ;  as, 

1.  The  nominative  addressed;  as,  ^^Mary,  study  your 
lesson." 


Questions. — What  points  are  used?  What  does  the  comma  denote?  Semi- 
colon? Colon?  Period?  Interrogation  point?  Exclamation  point?  What 
1:4  Rule  1  for  the  use  of  the  comma?  llulc  2?  Should  the  members  of  com- 
pound sentences  be  separated  when  they  are  short  and  closely  connected? 
Wliat  is  said  of  the  relative  clause  ?    What  is  Rule  3?    What  does  it  include  ? 


PUNCTUATION.  .  129 

2.  The  nominative  absolute;  as,  "JShamc  hciiifj  lontj  y'lrtuo 
is  lost." 

3.  Tlie  infinitive  absolute;  as,  ^'To  be  candidj  I  was  in 
fimlt.'^ 

Note.— Interjections  often  form  exceptions  to  this  rule;  as,  "Alas!  what  shall 
I  do  ?"    "  O  boy !  come  here !" 

Rule  4.  Adverbs,  or  adverbial  phrases  or  clauses,  begin- 
ning a  sentence,  or  not  closely  connected,  in  sense,  with  some 
other  word,  are  separated  by  the  comma;  as,  ^^Most  assuredly^ 
you  are  wrong."  ^^In  the  first  jdace,  she  was  absent."  "  I 
will  leave,  when  you  ohey  rne." 

Rule  5.  Nouns  in  apposition  should  be  separated  by  the 
comma;  as,  "Pcud,  the  Apostle,  was  a  martyr." 

Note  1. — Several  words  used  as  a  proper  name,  are  not  separated  ;  as,  "Mar- 
f ».s  TuUius  Cicero  M'as  a  great  orator." 

Note  2. — When  two  nouns  or  a  noun  and  a  pronoun  arc  very  closely  con- 
nected, they  are  not  separated  ;  as,  "Vc  men  of  Israel,  hear." 

Rule  6.  When  the  conjunctive  and  or  or  is  omitted,  the 
comma  must  supply  its  place;  as,  "A  virtuous,  gentle  and 
lovely  maiden." 

Rule  7.  When  the  finite  verb  is  understood,  the  comma 
usually  supplies  its  place;  as,  ''Love  produces  confidence; 
confidence,  (^produces)  friendship;  and  friendship,  {prO' 
duces)  delight." 

Rule  8.  Conjunctives  separated  from  their  clauses  by  in- 
tervening words,  are  pointed  off  by  the  comma;  as,  ^^Buf, 
by  perseverance,  you  may  succeed." 

Rule  9.  Prepositions  and  their  objects,  when  thrown  in 
between  other  words  closely  connected  together,  are  sepa- 
rated from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  the  comma  ;  as,  ''  Yet, 
hy  reading  the  best  authors,  you  will  acquire  correct  taste." 

Qurstinn/^. — Do  interjections  come  under  this  rule  ?  Wliat  is  Rule  •*?  Rule 
5  ?  .\re  several  words  used  as  one  proper  noun  sop.'jratod  ?  Should  two  closely 
eonno<>t^'d  nouns  Vk' spp  Mated  ?     Whnt  is  Rul.^  0?     RnlcT?     Rules?     RuloO? 


130  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Rule  10,  Words  repeated  for  emphasis,  are  pointed  off  by 
the  comma;  as,  ''I  would  never  lay  down  my  arms,  never ^ 
never  J  never  J' 

Rule  11.  All  dependent  propositions,  are  pointed  off  by 
the  comma;  as,  '■'^ If  you  come,  I  will  go.'^ 

Rule  12.  When  a  quotation  is  divided  bywords  interven- 
ing, a  comma  must  be  placed  on  each  side  of  these  words ; 
as,  *' '  The  laws  of  God,'  said  he,  '  are  just  and  good.'  " 

Rule  13.  When  words  are  used  in  pairs,  thej^jaiV.s  shonM 
be  separated;  as,  *' Evil  and  good,  prosperity  and  adversity, 
depend  upon  our  own  choice." 

Rule  14.  Words  used  in  contrast,  or  opposition,  should 
be  separated ;  as,  *'  Though  deep,  yet  clear  J' 

Rule  15.  When  or,  or  nor,  introduce  a  word  for  the  pur- 
pose of  explaining  what  precedes,  a  comma  should  be  placed 
before  it;  as,  ^^A  gentleman,  or  rather  a  manj  came  yester- 
day.'' 

the  semicolon. 

The  semicolon  is  used  to  separate  parts  of  sentences  less 
closely  connected  than  those  separated  by  the  comma;  and 
are  more  closely  vnited  than  those  separated  by  the  colon. 

Rule  1.  When  a  sentence  consists  of  two  or  more  inde- 
pendent members,  they  are  separated  by  the  semicolon,  un- 
less the  connection  is  very  close;  as,  "Lying  lips  are  an 
abomination  to  the  Lord;  but  they  that  deal  truly  are  his 
delight." 

Rule  2.  W^hen  minor  divisions  of  a  sentence  are  sepa- 
rated by  the  comma,  the  greater  divisions  are  usually  sepa- 
rated by  the  semicolon ;  as,  ''As  energy,  when  it  is  properly 

Qucstiovs.— What  is  Rule  10?    Rule  11  ?     Rule  12?    Rule  13 ?    Rule  14 ?    Rule 
15?    When  is  the  semicolon  used ?    What  is  Rule  1?    Rule  2? 


PUNCTUATION.  131 

directed,  leads   to  glorious  results;   so,  on   the  other  hand, 
sloth  insures  poverty,  suffering  and  disgrace." 

Rule  3.  Several  words  in  apposition  with  a  preceding 
noun,  are  separated  from  it  by  the  semicolon ;  as,  ^*  There 
are  three  divisions  of  time ;  the  past,  the  present,  and  the 
future." 

Rule  4.  When  several  long  clauses  have,  each,  a  common 
dependence  on  some  other  clause  or  word,  they  must  be  sepa- 
rated by  the  semicolon  ;  as,  '•'•If  he  is  toise  ;  if  he  regards  his 
own  intei'est ;  if  he  does  not  desjnse  his  own  happiness;  he 
will  accept  the  proposal." 
Note.— If  the  clauses  are  short,  they  may  be  separated  by  the  comma. 

THE   COLON. 

The  colon  is  used  to  separate  the  parts  of  a  compound  sen- 
tence, that  are  not  so  closely  connected  as  those  that  require 
the  semicolon. 

Rule  1.  The  colon  is  sometimes  placed  between  the  mem- 
bers of  a  compound  sentence,  when  there  is  no  conjunctive 
between  them;  as,  ''Never  flatter  the  people:  leave  that  to 
such  as  mean  to  betray  them." 

Rule  2.  The  colon  must  be  used  before  a  direct  quotation, 
or  a  number  of  particulars,  when  preceded  by  the  words, 
thus,  the  folloioing,  as  follows,  this,  these,  etc.  ;  as,  *'  He 
spake  as  follows  :  '  Never  shall  I  forget  your  kindness.'  " 

Note  1.  —  Particulars  are  formally  introduced  by  first,  sc^ondbf,  etc.;  as, 
"There  are  throe  grand  characteristics  of  the  mind:  Firfit,  the  intellect; 
seeon/fhf,  the  ponsibilities ;  and  thirdly,  the  will."  Omitting  "  first,"  "secondly," 
.nnd  "thirdly,"  and  it  would  be  thus:  "There  are  three  grand  characteristics 
of  mind  ;  the  intellect,  the  sensibilities,  and  the  will." 


Qucstionii. — What  is  Rule  .3?  Rule  4?  If  the  clauses  are  short,  what  point 
may  be  used  ?  For  what  is  the  colon  used  ?  What  is  IJiiIe  1  t  Rule  2?  How 
are  particulars  introduced  ? 


132  ENGLISH   GRAMiMAR. 

Note  2.— If  the  quoted  passage  is  introduced  by  that,  the  colon  is  not  used 
as,  "Remember  that '  one  to-day  is  worth  two  to-morrow.' " 

THE   PERIOD. 

Rule  1.  The  period  must  be  used  at  the  end  of  every  de- 
clarative and  imperative  sentence ;  as,  "John  runs."  "James, 
study  your  lesson.'' 

lluLE  2.  The  period  is  used  after  abbreviations ;  as,  "  J. 
C.  Cole."     "Dr.  W.  L.  Griffin." 

Note. — When  the  8hort  form  is  used  without  reference  to  the  original  word, 
the  period  is  not  used ;  as,  "  Jo"  for  "Joseph."    "  Eve"  for  " evening." 

There  is  hardly  any  unvarying  standard  of  punctuation. 

Different  authors  punctuate  diiferently. 

THE   INTERROGATION    POINT. 

Rule  1.  The  interrogation  point  is  used  after  questions ; 
as,  "  Who  comes  ?" 

Note  1. — When  two  or  more  questions  arc  united  in  a  compound  sentence, 
they  are  separated  by  the  comma,  or  semicolon  ;  and  the  interrogation  point 
is  placed  after  the  last;  as,  "  Will  you  remain,  or  go?" 

Note  2. — When  a  question  is  indirectly  referred  to,  the  point  is  omitted  ;  as, 
"  He  asked  me  why  J  came.^' 

Note  3. — The  interrogation  point  must  be  used  when  the  precise  words  of  a 
question  are  quoted ;  as,  "  He  said, '  Why  do  you  weep  V  " 

THE   EXCLAMATION   POINT. 

Rule  1.  The  exclamation  point  should  be  used  after  every 
exclamatory  sentence,  clause,  or  word;  as,  "How  sweetly 
she  sleeps !"  "  The  dark  billows  roll ;  how  frightful  the 
sound  !"     "  Darkest  treason  I"     "  Shame  !" 

Note  1.— The  exclamation  point  may  be  repeated  to  denote  great  emphasis; 
as,  "  Take  away  my  liberty !!"    "  What  consistency  ill" 


Questions.— 'When  the  quotation  is  introduced  by  "that,"  is  the  colon  tised? 
What  is  Rule  1  for  the  period?  Rule  2?  Note  1?  Do  all  writers  punctuate 
alike?  What  is  the  rule  for  tli'-  interrogation  point?  Note  1?  Note  2? 
What  is  the  rule  for  the  exclamation  point?     Not<?  1? 


PUNCTUATION.  133 

Note  2.— When  several  exclamatory  clauses  are  closely  connected  in  sense, 
the  point  is  placed  after  the  last  one ;  as.  "  When  the  enemy  advanced ;  when 
the  bristling  bayonets  portended  death  and  universal  carnage  ;  then,  all  of  a 
sudden,  fear  seized  them,  and  they  fled  in  the  wildest  confusion :" 

Note  3.— "O"  is  not  followed  by  the  exclamation  point;  as,  " O  liberty  1" 

Note  4.— When  the  interjection  is  very  closely  connected  with  the  words 
following  it,  the  point  is  put  last;  as,  "Alas  for  me  I" 

THE  DASH. 

The  dash  ( — )  is  used  very  extensively  by  recent  authors, 
and  in  various  ways.     The  following  are  its  legitimate  uses  : 
1.  To  denote  an  abrupt  change  in  the  construction,  a  sud- 
den transition  from  one  topic  to  another,  and  a  significant 
pause  ;  as, 

"  He  had  no  malice  in  his  mind — 
No  ruffles  on  his  shirt." 

"Politicians  are  brilliant,  profound,  far-seeing — every  thin"- 
but  honest." 

"And  now  they  part — to  meet  no  more." 

2.  When  a  word  or  syllable  is  repeated  with  great  empha- 
sis, accompanied  with  surprise  or  indignation ;  as,  ''  He  is 
^—''^— a— pardon  me— I  must  say  it— a  cold-hearted  villain." 

3.  To  denote  the  omission  of  letters,  words  and  figures ; 
as,  "  Mr.  B came  to  the  town  of in  April,  18—." 

4.  The  dash  is  used  after  the  comma,  semicolon,  and  colon, 
to  indicate  a  greater  pause  than  is  usually  required. 

5.  It  is  sometimes  used  after  the  period,  to  denote  that 
what  follows  is  explanatory  of  what  immediately  precedes; 
also,  to  denote  that  a  new  subject  or  paragraph  is  introduced. 

QM/:.yrions.-Note2?    Note  .3?    Note  4  ?     Is  the  dash  muoh  used  ?     What  are 
Its  proper  uses  t    Is  it  ever  used  with  the  other  points  ?    When  \ 


134  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

OTHER   CHARACTERS. 

THE    PARENTHESIS. 

Marks  of  parenthesis j  ( ),  arc  used  to  inclose  a  word, 
phrase,  clause,  or  sentence,  which  serves  to  explain  or  limit 
the  thought  with  which  the  paranthetical  words  are  used ; 
as,  "  Shall  we  (I  speak  it  with  shame !)  submit  to  such  hu- 
miliation ?"     ''  John  Smith  (for  that  is  his  name)  informed 


Note  1. — In  covimon,  dicfnified  composition,  parantheses  should  poldom  bo 
used;  yet  it  is  proper  to  use  this  character  in  the  following  instances : 

1.  The  words  of  approbation,  or  censure,  expressed  by  an  audience  toward 
the  speaker,  should,  when  published,  be  placed  within  parentheses;  as,  "We 
are  engaged  in  a  great  struggle  for  liberty;  and  we  will  soon  show  whether  we 
are  worthy  of  our  revolutionary  sires,  (api^lause ;)  whether  we  deserve  free- 
dom or  slavery.    (Cheers,  mingled  with  hisses.") 

2.  Directions  given  by  tlie  author  to  the  action  of  tragedy,  should  be  placed 
within  parentheses;  as,  Cicero.  "Expel  him,  lictors.  Clear  the  senate - 
house."  (They  surround  him.)  Cataline.  (Struggling  through  them.)  "  I 
go,"  etc.,  etc. 

Note  2. — Parentheses,  in  common  prose,  may  sometimes  be  introduced  with 
good  etfect;  and  in  public  speaking,  this  privilege  may,  at  times,  bo  indulged 
with  a  still  happier  effect. 

Note  3. — Matter  within  parentheses  should  be  punctuated  as  other  composi- 
tion, except  before  the  last  mark.  Here  the  interrogation,  exclamation  point, 
or  the  period  must  be  used,  if  the  sense  of  the  clause  is  complete,  and  re- 
quires such  a  mark.  If  the  colon,  semicolon,  or  comma  would  be  introduced 
between  the  p.arts  of  the  sentence  separated  by  tlie  parentheses,  these  points 
must  follow  the  last  mark  of  the  parenthesis. 

Note  4. — The  interrogation  point  is  often  used  within  the  parentheses  to  cast 
doubt  or  suspicion  on  an  asscrtioti  or  suj^positioyi. 

Note  5. — The  exclamation  point  u.sed  within  parentheses,  denotes  wonder, 
contempt,  etc. 

Q u est ions.—V or  what  is  the  parenthesis  used  ?  Should  parentheses  bo  much 
used?  How  should  words  of  apurobation  or  censure  towards  a  speaker  bo 
written  ?  Directions  given  by  the  author  to  the  actor  of  tragedy?  May  paren- 
theses be  used  in  common  prose?  In  public  speaking?  How  should  matter 
within  parentheses  be  punctuated?  How  is  tlie  interrogation  point  used  in 
parentheses  ?    Tlie  ex<*lamation  point  ? 


PUNCTUATION.  135 

BRACKETS. 

Brackets,  [  ],  usually  inclose  some  explanation  or  remark, 
for  the  purpose  of  preventing  mistake,  or  correcting  an  error 
in  a  quotation ;  as,  "  Susan  told  Jane  that  she  [Susan]  would 
go."     "  He  said,  '  I  affirm  that  he  [I]  was  in  fault.'  " 

QUOTATION    MARKS. 

Quotation  marks  (*'  ")  are  used  when  a  writer  wishes  to 
quote  the  words  of  an  author  or  speaker  ;  or  when  he  wishes 
to  represent  another  as  using  certain  words;  as,  John  said, 
*'  I  will  come." 

Note  1. — When  we  use  the  thoughts  of  another,  hut  change  the  form  of  ex- 
pre.ssion,  the  quotation  marks  must  not  be  used;  as,  John  said  that  he 
would  f]o. 

Note  2. — When  a  quotation  occurs  within  a  quotation,  single  points  are  used; 
as,  Smit^i  said,  "I  will  never  knowingly  violate  the  golden  rule,  '  Do  unto  oth- 
ers as  you  would  that  they  should  do  to  you.' " 

Note  3. — When  several  successive  paragraphs  arc  quoted,  the  inverted  com- 
mas should  be  used  at  the  first  of  each,  but  the  other  half  of  the  quotation 
used  only  at  the  last. 

Note  4. — W' hen  a  quotation  is  used,  its  punctuation  should  be  strictly  ob- 
served, except  the  points  before  or  after  the  quotation.  These  points  must  bo 
determined  by  the  connection  of  the  quotation  with  wliat  precedes  and  fol- 
lows it. 

THE    APOSTROPHE. 

The  apostrophe  ( ' )  is  used, — 

1.  To  denote  the  possessive  case  of  nouns;  as,  "John's 
knife." 

2.  To  denote  the  omission  of  a  letter,  or  letters ;  as,  '  Tis^ 
(for  it  is;)  I'll,  (for  /  wiU ;)  tho',  (for  though;)  o'er,  (for 
over.) 

3.  To  denote  plurality;  as,  ''The  3's,  2's,  a's." 

Questions. — For  what  are  brackets  used  ?  For  what  are  qtiotation  marks 
used?  Must  we  use  them  when  we  use  the  thoughts,  but  not  the  language,  of 
another?  When  do  we  upp  single  quotation  marks  ?  How  must  several  para- 
graphs })e  quoted?  Wh.at  is  said  of  the  punctuation  of  a  quotation?  For 
what  is  the  apostrophe  used? 


136  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Note.  —  The  following  distinction  niu.st  be  made  between  the  use  of  tiio 
period,  dash,  and  apostrophe,  when  used  to  abbreviate: 

1.  The  period  is  used  to  denote  abbreviations  of  proper  names,  titles,  tech- 
nical terms,  and  foreign  words;  as, "  Jas.  W.  Harris,"  (for  James  Willis  Harris.) 

2.  The  dash  is  used  when  an  indefinite  allusion  is  made  to  an  object;  as, 
"  Mr.  J came  to  the  city  of  M ." 

3.  The  apostrophe  is  used  when  we  wish  to  abbreviate  a  common  English 
word,  or  to  contract  two  word«  into  one. 

THE    HYPHEN. 

The  hyphen  (-)  is  used  to  show  that  the  parts  between 
which  it  is  placed  belong  to  the  same  word. 
Its  principal  uses  are  : 

1.  To  unite  two  or  more  words  so  as  to  form  a  single  ele- 
ment; as,  "Good-natured;"  "never-to-be-forgotten." 

2.  To  unite  two  nouns  so  as  to  form  a  compound  noun, 
when  both  words  are  accented ;  as,  "  Glass-house."  If  only 
one  of  the  words  is  accented,  the  hyphen  is  omitted;  .is, 
"  Watchman." 

3.  To  distinguish  compound  words  of  the  same  spelling, 
but  of  different  pronunciation  and  meaning;  as,  "Re- 
creation," and  "recreation." 

4.  When,  from  want  of  space,  a  portion  of  a  word  has  to 
be  written  in  the  next  line,  the  hyphen  should  be  placed  at 
the  end  of  the  first  line;  as,  "Improba- 
bility." 

ELLIPSIS. 

Marks  of  ellipsis,  ( ),  or  ^i'"^-^*^^  are  used  to  show 

that  letters  are  omitted  from  a  ivord  ;  words  from  a  sentence; 
sentences  from  a  paragraph ;  a  paragraph,  or  paragraphs^ 

from  a  chapter ,  or  chapters  from  a  hook;  as,  "The  S r,  or 

S****r,  has  violated  the  privileges  of  this  body  '^'^'^.     But 
he  will  reap  his  harvest  of  contempt  in  due  time." 

Questions. — What  distinction  must  be  made  between  the  use  of  the  period, 
dash,  and  apostrophe  ?  For  wliat  is  the  hyphen  used  ?  Name  the  uses  of  the 
hyphen.    For  what  are  mark?  of  ellipsis  used  ' 


PUNCTUATION.  137 

Note. — When  letters  are  omitted  from  a  word,  tlicrc  must  be  a  period,  or 
star,  for  evoi'y  omitted  letter. 

THE   CARET. 

The  caret,  (A),  used  only  in  written  composition,  shows 
that  interlined  letters,  or  words,  are  to  be  introduced ;  as, 

e  the 

*'  Lettrs.'^     ^^No  man  is  free  from  cares  of  life.'* 
A  A 

THE   DIURESIS. 

The  diaeresis  (•)  is  placed  over  the  latter  of  two  vowels  to 
show  that  they  do  not  form  a  diphthong;  as,  '^Zoology; 
aerial." 

THE    BRACE. 

The  brace  (  J-  )  is  used  to  connect  several  words  with  one 

common  term ;  as, 

J.  Blanton, 

11.  Rawson,      \-  Committee. 

J.  Thomson, 

REFERENCE    MARKS. 

Reference  marks  are  used  to  direct  the  attention  to  notes 
on  the  margin,  or  at  the  bottom  of  the  page.  They  are:  tlie 
asterisk  (*),  the  ohelish  (f),  the  double  (higger  (|),  .'in-l 
parallels  (||).  When  a  large  number  of  references  are  made, 
the  figures  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  or  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  nre 
used. 

PARAGRAPH. 

The  paragraph  (^)  denotes  the  beginning  of  a  new  sub- 
ject. This  mark  i.s  used  in  the  Rible.  In  modern  writings, 
a  new  subject  is  indicated  by  commencing  on  a  new  line,  a 
little  to  the  right. 

Qnesfions. — When  letters  arc  omitted  from  a  word,  how  many  marks  of  ellip- 
sis must  be  used  ?  When  and  how  is  the  r:ir-'t  used  ?  What  is  the  use  of  the 
diajresis?  For  what  is  the  l>r.i(^c  used?  Kercrcnec  marks  do  what ?  Name 
the  reference  marks.    How  is  tlic  panifjiiiplj  used? 


138  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

SECTION. 

The  section  (§)  mark  is  placed  before  the  subdivision  of  a 
book  accompanied  with  numbers,  for  convenience  of  refer- 
ence. 


Question.— Where  is  the  section  mark  placed  ? 


ACCENT.  139 


ACCENT. 


Accent  is  of  two  kinds — Grammatical  and  Rhetorical. 

Grammatical  Accent  (')  is  a  stress  of  voice  placed  upon  a 
syllabic  or  syllables  of  a  word  to  render  it  easy  of  pronuncia- 
tion. 

Note.— This  accent  was  settled  according  to  no  definite  rules;  but  was  de- 
termined by  n(jrccablcness  of  sound,  and  natural  case  of  speaking. 

This  accent  is  of  two  degrees,  called  primari/  and  second- 
ary. The  primary  is  the  principal  accent,  and  is  used  in  all 
words  of  two  or  more  syllables ;  while  the  serondari/  is  used 
only  in  polysyllables;  as,  ac'ccnt;  ac-cent'-na-tion.  In  the 
last  word,  the  primary  accent  is  on  "  cent,"  and  the  second- 
ary on  "a." 

Note  1. — Words  of  one  syllable  have  no  accent. 

Note  2.— Accent  does  not  fall  on  two  successive  syllables  except,  perhaps, 
in  a  few  compound  words. 

Rhetorical  accent  is  a  peculiar  inflection  of  the  voice 
placed  upon  certain  words  to  denote  the  tone  of  voice  in 
which  they  should  be  pronounced.  There  are  three  accents 
of  this  kind:  the  grave  ('),  acute  (^),  and  circumflex  (  ^  ). 

The  acute  denotes  the  rising  inflection;  as,  ''  Have  you 
com'e  ?"     "  Did  you  say  thi's  ?" 

The  grave  accent  is  used  to  denote  the  falling  inflection ; 
as,  "I  have  comV"     "  It  is  T." 

Questions.— ilovr  many  kinds  of  accent?  What  are  they?  What  is  the  gram- 
matical ?  Upon  what  principles  is  it  based  ?  IIow  many  kinds  of  grammatical 
accent?  What  arc  they?  What  words  have  no  accent?  Note  2?  Wliat  is 
rhetorical  accent?  How  many  kinds  ?  What  is  tlie  acute  used  for?  What 
docs  the  grave  accent  denote  ? 


140  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

The  circumjlcx  accent  (made  up  of  the  acute  and  grave) 
is  used  to  denote  the  rising  and  falling  inflection  in  the  pro- 
nunciation of  the  same  word  or  syllable ;  as,  '^  He  said  that 
it  was  you,  not  me." 


EMPHASIS. 


Emjyhasis  is  of  two  kinds — Grammatical  and  Rhetorical. 

Grammatical  marks  of  emphasis  are  used  to  attract  the 
special  attention  of  the  reader.  They  are  usually  found  in 
newspapers,  hand-bills,  cards,  etc  ,  but  very  seldom  in  books. 
They  are  : 

1.  The  index,  or  hand,  (B@°") 

2.  The  Asterism,  (*^*) 

Rhetorical  emphasis  is  a  peculiar,  forcihle  stress  of  voice 
in  pronouncing  certain  words  j  as,  "iVeyer,  never,  NEVER !" 

The  lowest  degree  of  emphasis  is  indicated  by  the  words 
being  printed  in  italics ;  as,  *'2)o  you  hear  me  .^"  In  writing, 
this  is  indicated  by  a  single  mark  drawn  under  the  word  or 
words. 

A  still  higher  degree  of  emphasis  is  denoted  by  printing 
the  word  or  words  in  small  capitals ;  as,  "Who  comes?" 
This  is  denoted  in  writing  by  drawing  two  lines  beneath  the 
word  or  words. 

The  greatest  emphasis  is  shown  by  printing  the  word  or 
words  in  large  capitals  ]  as,  "ATLANTA."  This,  in  writing, 
is  shown  by  drawing  three  lines  beneath. 

Questions. — AVhat  does  the  cirouinflex  denote?    How  many  kinds  of  empha- 
sis ?    What  are  they  ?    How  are  tlioy  each  indicated? 


PROSODY.  141 


PROSODY 


Poetry,  strictly  speaking,  is  the  language  of  the  imagina- 
tion and  passion.  This,  together  with  the  circumstance  that 
poetry  has  in  each  line  a  certain  number  of  syllables  and 
feet,  constitutes  the  characteristic  difference  between  pro&e 
and  poetry.  That  is  not  poetry  which  consists  merely  of  a 
succession  of  feet  or  rhyme  :  the  thought  must  be  'poetical. 
It  is  not  necessary,  however,  that  every  thought  in  a  poem 
should  be  figurative ;  yet  the  "  figurative  and  the  fanciful" 
must  predominate.  The  conception  may  be  poetical;  but 
this  of  itself  does  not  make  poetry.  The  measure  must  be 
observed  as  well  as  the  thought. 

Prosody  treats  of  the  laws  of  versification ^  {yerse-making.^ 

A  verse  is  a  succession  of  accented  and  unaccented  sylla- 
bles, arranged  so  as  to  form  a  line  of  poetry. 

A  line  consists  of  a  certain  number  of  feet. 

A  foot  is  a  division  of  a  verse  consisting  of  two  or  three 
syllables. 

A  syllahlc  is  cither  long  or  short.  A  short  syllable  re- 
quires half  the  time  of  a  long  one  for  pronunciation. 

All  accented  syllables  arc  long. 

All  unaccented  syllables  (except  some  monosyllables)  are 
short. 

Questions. — What  is  s.iid  of  poetry  ?  Of  what  does  prosody  treat  ?  WJmt  is  a 
verse?  Of  what  does  a  lino  consist  ?  What  is  a  foot?  How  are  syllables  di- 
vided? What  time  does  a  short  syllable  require?  What  syllables  are  long? 
W'hat  are  short? 


142  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Monosyllables  are  either  long  or  short,  according  to  the 
demands  of  the  verse. 

Note. — Nouns,  verbs,  adverbs,  adjectives,  and  interjections,  of  one  syllable, 
are  gener.illy  long.  Prepositions  and  conjunctives  are,  for  the  most  part, 
short.  Articles  are  always  short.  Pronouns  are  short,  unless  they  are  cwt- 
phatic. 

A  long  syllable  is  sometimes  designated  by  the  mark,  (-), 
placed  over  it;  as,  over. 

The  short  syllable  is  denoted  by  the  semicircle ;  as.  Baker. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  verse — rhyme  and  blank  verse. 
Rhyme  is  a  similarity  of  sound  between  the  last  syllables 
of  two  or  more  lines. 

Blank  verse  has  no  rhyme. 

FEET. 

The  following  are  the  feet  mostly  used  in  English  poetry  : 

The  Iambic — first  short,  second  long ;  as,  hestow,  below. 

The  Trochee — first  long,  second  short;  as,  baker,  maker. 

The  Spondee — both  long;   as,  vain  show. 

The  Dactyl — one  long,  two  short ;  as,  excellent. 

The  Anapcest — two  short,  one  long ;  as,  intervene. 

The  Amphibrach — first  short,  second  long,  third  short;  as, 
confinement. 

The  Tribrach — three  short;  as,  vulnerable. 

Note  1. — The  syllables  that  have  the  straight  mark  over  them  are  accented. 
The  others  have  no  accent. 

Note  2. — The  length  of  time  required  in  pronouncing  a  syllable  depends 
upon  the  nature  of  the  piece. 

Note  3.— Most  poetry  is  written  in  Iambic. 


Questions. — Are  monosyllables  long?  What  parts  of  speech  of  one  syllable 
are  long?  What  are  short?  Are  pronouns  long  or  short?  How  is  a  long  syl- 
lable marked?  A  short?  How  many  kinds  of  verse  arc  there?  What  are 
they?  Name  the  feet  of  two  syllables?  Of  three  syllables?  What  syllables 
are  accented?  Upon  what  docs  the  length  of  time  required  in  pronouncing 
a  syllable  depend  7 


PROSODY.  143 

METRE. 

Metre,  or  measure,  is  the  proper  arrangement  of  a  certain 
number  of  feet  in  a  verse. 

A  verse  of  one  foot  is  called  a  Monometer. 

A  verse  of  two  feet  is  called  a  Dimeter. 

A  verse  of  three  feet  is  called  a  Trimeter. 

A  verse  of  four  feet  is  called  a  Tetrameter. 

A  verse  of  five  feet  is  called  a  Pentameter. 

A  verse  of  six  feet  is  called  a  Hexameter. 

A  verse  of  seven  feet  is  called  a  Heptameter,  etc. 

SCANNING — STANZA. 

Scanning  is  dividing  a  verse  into  the  feet  of  which  it  is 
composed. 

A  stanza  is  a  combination  of  two  or  more  verses,  consti- 
tuting a  regular  division  of  a  poem  or  song. 

Note. — The  name  of  the  foot  must  precede  the  terms  which  denote  the  num- 
ber of  feet ;  as,  "  Iambic  dimeter,  tetrameter,"  etc. 

C^SURAL   AND    FINAL    PAUSES. 

There  are  two  pauses  peculiar  to  poetry — the  camral  and 
final. 

The  cmsural  pause  divides  the  line  into  two  parts.  It  is 
usually  placed  at  the  end  of  the  fourth,  fifth  or  sixth  f<ylla- 
ble,  in  lines  of  eight,  ten  or  twelve  syllables.  There  is  no 
rule  for  its  position,  other  than  that  it  is  at  or  near  the 
middle. 

The  final  pause  naturally  occurs  at  the  end  of  every  line 
of  poetry. 


Questions.— \ihi\i  is  metre?  What  is  averse  of  one  foot  called?  Of  two  feet? 
Of  three?  Of  four?  Of  five?  Of  six?  Of  seven?  What  is  scanning?  What 
is  a  stanza?  In  naming  verso,  what  is  the  place  of  the  name  of  the  foot? 
What  is  the  use  of  the  coesural  pause  ?    Where  does  the  final  pause  occur? 


144  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

IAMBIC    VERSE. 

1.  Of  one  foot : 

'Tis  sweet 

To  meet. 

2.  Of  two  feet: 

'^  With  thee  |  we  rise, 
With  thee  |  we  reign." 

3.  Of  three  feet : 

"  In  pla  I  ces  far  |  or  near, 
Or  fii  I  mous  or  j  obscure." 

Note. — The  Iambic  monometcr,  dimeter,  or  trimeter,  is  continued  but  for  a 
few  lines. 

4.  Of  four  feet : 

"And  coM  I  er  still  |  the  winds  |  did  blow, 
And  dark  |  er  hours  |  of  night  j  came  on." 

Note. — This  is  called  Iambic  tetrameter.  A  poem  of  any  length  may  be  writ- 
ten in  this  measure. 

5.  Of  five  feet : 

"  Ye    glit'  I  ring    towns  |  with    wealth  |  and    splend  |  or 
crowned, 
Ye     fields   |  where    sum   |  mer    spreads   |  profii  |  sion 
round." 

Note. — Tliis  is  called  Iambic  pentameter,  or  Heroic  verse. 

G.  Of  six  feet : 
"  The  crii  |  el,  rav  |  'nous  hounds  |  and  blood  |  y  bun  |  ters 
near. 
This  no  I  blest  beast  |  of  chase,  |  that  vain  |  ly  doth  |  but 
fear." 

Note. — This  is  called  Iambic  hexameter,  or  Alexandrine  verse.  It  requires  a 
pause  after  the  third  foot. 

Questions.— Give  an  example  of  Iambic  verse  of  one  foot.  Of  two.  Of  three. 
Is  the  Iambic  dimeter  continued?  Give  an  example  of  four  feet.  What  is  it 
calied  ?  Of  five  feet.  WHiat  is  this  verse  called  ?  What  is  a  verse  of  six  feet 
called  ?    Where  does  it  require  a  pause? 


1?R0S0DY.  145 

7.  Of  seven  feet,  or  Iambic  Jieptameter : 
"There's  beau  (  ty   all  |  around  |  oiir  paths,  |  if   but  |  our 
watch  I  fill  eyes 
Can  trace  j  it  ^midst  |  famil  |  iar  things,  |  and  through  | 
their  low  |  ly  guise." 

Note.— Each  of  the  above  species  of  verse  may  have  an  additional  syllullc 
at  the  close. 

1.  Disdaining. 

2.  Upon  I  a  moun  |  tain. 

3.  When  on  |  her  ma  |  ker's  bo  |  som. 

4.  Biit  hail,  |  thou  god  |  dess,  sage  |  and  ho  |  ly. 

5.  What  slen  |  der  youth,  |  bedewed  |  with  li  |  quid  o  |  dor. 

6.  Whose  front  |  clin  brave  |  the  storm,  |  but  will  |  not  roar 

I  the  flow  I  er. 

7.  To  scat  I  ter  o'er  |  his  path  |  of  fame  |  bright  hues  |  of 
gem  I  like  show  |  ers. 

Note,— All  of  our  sacred  hymns,  marked  Short,  Common,  or  Long  Metre,  are 
composed  of  Iambics. 

In  sJiort  metrej  the  Jirstj  second  and  fourth  lines  contain 
each  three  Iambic  feet;  the  thirdj  four ;  as, 
"  Did  Christ  |  o'er  sin  |  ners  weep  ? 
And  shall  |  our  cheeks  |  be  dry  ? 
Let  floods  I  of  pen  j  iten  |  tial  grief 
Burst  forth  |  from  ev^  |  ry  eye." 

In  cominon  metrcj  the  first  and  ihi7'd  verses  contain  four 
Iambics;  the  second  aud/ourthf  three;  as, 
"Am  I    I  a  sol  I  dier  of  |  the  cross, 
A  fol  I  lower  of  |  the  Lamb  ? 
And  shall  |  I  fear  |  to  own  |  his  cause. 
Or  blush  I  to  speak  |  his  name  V 

Questiong.— What  is  a  verse  of  seven  feet  called?  May  any  of  these  verses 
have  an  additional  syllable  ?  Give  examples.  Of  what  are  our  hymns,  marked 
short,  common,  or  long  metre,  composed  ?  Describe  short  metre.  Common 
metre. 


146  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

In  long  metre,  each  line  consists  of  four  Iambics ;  as, 

*'  Before  |  Jeho  |  vah's  aw  |  f ul  throne, 
Ye  na  |  tions  bow  |  with  sa  |  cred  joy; 
Know  that  |  the  Lord  |  is  God  |  alone ; 
He  can  |  create,  |  and  he  |  destroy." 

TROCHAIC  VERSE. 

1.  The  shortest  Trochaic  verse  consists  of  one  foot  with 
an  additional  syllable;  as, 

"  Tumult  I  cease ; 
Sink  to  I  peace." 

2.  The  next  consists  of  two  trochees ;  as, 

"  Wishes  I  rising. 

Thoughts  sur  |  prising." 
Note.— Sometimes  an  additional  foot  appears ;  as, 
"  In  the  I  days  of  |  old. 

Stories  |  plainly  |  told." 

3.  The  third  consists  of  three  trochees;  as, 

"  Go  where  |  glory  |  waits  thee. 
But  when  |  fame  e  |  lates  thee." 

Note.— An  additional  syllable  sometimes  appears ;  as, 

" '  Tis  re  |  ligion  |  that  cSn  |  give 
Sweetest  |  pleasure  |  while  we  |  live. 

4.  Of  four  feet ;  as, 

"  Roiind  us  |  roars  the  |  tempest  |  louder." 

5.  Barely  of  five  feet. 

Note.— The  sacred  hymns,  marked  "  88  &  7s,"  or  "  7s,"  are  composed  of  tro- 
chees; as, 


<^c»<ionj.— Describe  long  metre.  Of  what  does  the  shortest  trochaic  verse 
consist?  The  next?  May  an  additional  syllable  be  added  ?  Of  what  does  the 
third  consist  ?    The  fourth  ?    Is  the  fifth  ever  used  ?    Of  what  are  the  sacred 

hymns,  marked  "7s  &  8.s,"  composed  ? 


PROSODY.  147 

*  God  is  I  love  j  his  |  mercy  |  brightens 
All  the  I  path  in  |  which  we  |  rove ; 
Bliss  he  |  wakes,  and  |  woe  he  |  lightens ; 
God  is  I  wisdom,  |  God  is  |  love/' 

The  odd  lines  arc  composed  of  four  trochees,  and  the  even 
of  three  trochees  and  the  first  syllable  of  an  Iambic. 

The  odd  lines  are  trochaic  tetrameter j  complete;  and  the 
even,  trochaic  tetrameter j  defective. 

Hymns  marked  "  7s"  are  of  this  latter  class. 
Hymns  marked  "8s,  7s,  &  4s,"  are  Trochaic;  as, 
"  On  the  I  mountain  |  top  ap  |  pearing,  (Tro.  tet.,  complete.) 
Lo  !  the  I  sacred  |  herald  |  stands,       (Tro.  tet.,  defective.) 
Welcome  |  news  to  |  Zion  |  bearing ;  (as  the  first.) 

Zion,  I  long  in  |  hostile  |  lands;  (as  the  second.) 

Mourning  |  captive,  (Trochaic  Dimeter.) 

God  him  |  self  will  |  loose  thy  |  bands."     (as  the  second.) 

DACTYLIC   VERSE. 

This  species  of  verse  is  little  used.     The  following  varie- 
ties may  be  noted : 

1.  Of  one  foot;  as, 

"  Cheerfully, 

TCarfiilly." 

2.  Of  two  feet;  as, 

"  Free  from  anx  |  icty, 
Care,  and  sa  |  tiety." 

3.  Of  three  feet;  as, 

"  Wearing  a  |  way  in  his  |  youthf  illness, 
Loveliness,  |  beauty,  and  |  truthfulness." 

4.  Of  four  feet ;  as. 

Questions.— 0{  what  are  the  odd  lines  composed  T  The  even  ?  What  is  the 
name  of  the  odd  Hnes  f  Of  the  even  1  What  hymns  are  of  this  clans  ?  What 
hymns  are  trochaic?    Is  dactylic  verse  mucJi  used?    Give  the  varieties. 


148  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

"  BachelSr's  |  hall,    what  a  |  quare  looking  |  place  it  is ! 
Sure  but  I  |  think  what  a  |  burning  dis  |  grace  it  is 
Never  at  |  all  to  be  |  getting  a  |  wife." 

ANAP^STIC    VERSE. 

1.  Of  one  foot;  as, 

"But  too  far 
Each  proud  star." 

2.  Of  two  feel;  as, 

"  Come  Jtway  |  to  the  skies, 
My  belov  |  ed  arise." 

8.  Of  three  feet ;  as, 

"  O  ye  woods,  |  spread  your  branch  |  es  apace ; 
To  your  deep  |  est  recess  |  as  I  fly ; 
I  would  hide  |  with  the  beasts  |  of  the  chase, 
I  would  van  |  ish  from  ev  |  ery  eye." 

4.  Of  four  feet;  as, 

"  May  I   gov  |  ern  my  pas  |  sions  with  ab  |  solute  sway, 
And  grow  wi  |  ser  and  bet  |  ter  as  life  |  wears  away." 

THE    AMPHIBRACH. 

This  is  very  little  used.     The  following  may  be  scanned  in 
this  way,  or  be  made  a  Dactyl : 

"  How  firm  a  |  foundation,  |  ye  saints  of  |  the  L5rd, 
Is  laid  for  |  your  faith  in  |  his  excel  |  lent  word !" 

As  Dactylic  verse : 

"  How  firm  |  a  founda  |  tion,  ye  sainte  |  of  the  Lord, 
Is  laid  I  for  your  faith  |  in  his  excel  |  lent  word !" 


Questions.  —  What  anapeestic  verses  are  used?    Is  the  amphibrach  used? 
Give  au  example. 


PROSODY.  149 

By  this  method,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  first  foot  in  each 
verse  is  an  Iambic;  while  the  others  are  Dactyls.  ^ 

The  Pyrrhic  and  Tribrach  are  used  to  vary  the  other  feet. 

It  is  often  the  case  that  two  or  more  feet  are  blended 
together  in  the  same  verse. 

PYRRHIC    AND    IAMBIC. 

"And  to  I  the  dead  |  my  will  |  ing  soul  |  shall  go." 

TROCHEE   AND    IAMBIC. 

"  Tyrant  |  and  slave !  |  those  names  |  of  hate  |  and  fear.'' 

IAMBIC   AND    SPONDEE. 

"Forbear,  |  great  man;  |  in  arms  |  ronown'd,  |  forbear." 

IAMBIC   AND   ANAP^ST. 

"  My  sor  |  rows  I   then  |  might  assiiage 
In  the  ways  |  of  reli  |  gion  and  truth ; 
Might  learn  |  from  the  wis  |  dom  of  age, 
And  be  cheer'd  |  by  the  sal  |  lies  of  youth." 

BLANK    VERSE. 

Blank  verse  is  better  adapted  to  grave  subjects  than 
rhyme.  The  lines  may  run  into  each  other  with  perfect 
freedom.  This  species  of  verse  is  either  in  Heroic  measure^ 
or  in  jive  Iambics.  Milton,  Pollok,  Cowper,  Thomson,  Arm- 
strong, and  Akenside,  arc  the  principal  writers  in  this  species 
of  verse. 


Questions.— Fox  yvhai  are  the  Pyrrhic  and  Tribrach  used?  Are  feet  ever 
blended  ?  Give  examples.  To  what  is  blank  verse  adapted  ?  In  what  mea- 
sure is  it  written? 


150  ENGLISH    GRAiMMAR. 


FIGURES   OF   SPEECH. 


A  figure  of  speech  is  a  peculiar  mode  of  speaking,  in 
which  a  word  or  sentence  is  to  be  understood  as  conveying  a 
meaning  very  different  from  its  common  and  literal  meaning. 
These  figures  of  speech  are  sometimes  called  tropes;  i.  e., 
turns.  This  subject  belongs  to  Rhetoric.  The  following  are 
the  principal  of  these  : 

Personification,  Simile,  Metaphor,  Allegory,  Metonymy, 
Synecdoche,  Hyperhole,  Vision,  Apostrophe,  Interrogation, 
Exclamation,  Antithesis,  Climax,  Irony,  ParaUpsis,  Ono- 
matopceia. 

1.  Personification  is  the  attributing  life,  intelligence,  etc., 
to  inanimate  objects,  personality  to  inferior  animals;  as, 
*'  These  very  walls  reproach  me."  *•  The  ants  replied,  ^If 
you  sang  in  summer,  dance  in  winter.' " 

2.  Simile  expresses  the  resemblance  which  one  object 
bears  to  another ;  generally  expressed  by  Wee,  as,  or  so  ;  as, 
"  He  is  like  a  lion.'' 

3.  Metaphor  is  the  attributing  the  qualities  or  name  of 
one  object  to  another,  on  account  of  some  resemblance 
between  them;  as,  "He  is  a  lion." 

Note. — The  difference  between  a  simile  and  metaphor  is,  that  like,  so,  or  as, 
is  not  used  with  the  metaphor. 


Questions.  —  What  is  a  figure  of  ppeech  ?  Name  the  principal  figures  of 
speech.  AVhat  is  Personification?  Simile?  Metaphor?  What  is  the  differ- 
ence between  simile  and  metaphor? 


FIGURES   OF   SPEECH.  151 

4:i  Allegory  is  the  narration  of  fictitious  events,  for  the 
purpose  of  illustrating  or  conveying  some  important  truth ; 
as,  "  The  kingdom  of  heaven  is  like  to  a  grain  of  mustard- 
seed,  which  a  man  took,  and  sowed  in  his  field  :"  etc.  (Matt, 
xiii.  31.) 

5.  Metonymy  is  the  changing  of  names  between  things 
related.     It  is  founded  on  the  following  relations  : 

1st.  Cause  and  effect;  as,  ^^ Hoary  hairs  should  be  re- 
spected j"  i.  e.,  old  age. 

2d.  Posterity  2l\i^ progenitor ;  as,  "Hear,  0  Israel;^*  i.  e., 
descendants  of  Israel. 

3d.  Subject  and  attribute;  as,  ^'Kindness  and  goodness 
shall  triumph ;"  i.  e.,  the  kind  and  good. 

4th.  Place  and  inJiabitant;  as,  "All  Judea  went  out  to 
him  j"  i.  e.,  the  people  of  Judea, 

5th.  Container  and  thing  contained;  as,  "Our  forts 
opened  a  fire  ;'^  i.  e.,  the  soldiers  in  the  forts. 

6th.  Sign  and  thing  signified;  as,  "The  sceptre  shall  not 
depart  from  Judah ;"  i.  e.,  kingly  power. 

7th.  Material  and  thing  made  of  it;  as,  "  His  5^ee/ glit- 
tered ;"  i.  e.,  his  sword. 

6.  Synecdoche  is  using  a  definite  for  an  indefinite  num- 
ber ;  the  name  of  a  part  for  the  whole,  and  of  the  whole  for 
at  part;  as,  ^^Tcn  thousand/'  for  any  large  number;  the 
^^head'"  for  the  ^^ person.'' 

7.  Hyperbole  is  an  exaggeration ;  as,  "  He  is  stronger 
than  a  lion.'' 

8.  Vision  is  representing  past  events  or  imaginary  scenes 
as  present;  as,  "Caesar  leaves  Gaul,  crosses  the  Rubicon, 
and  enters  Italy;"  i.  e.,  bft  Gaul,  etc. 

Qi(cstions.— What  is  Allegory  T    What  is  Metonymy  ?    Upon  what  relations  is 
is  founded?    What  is  Synecdoche?    Hyperbole?    Vision? 


152  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

9.  Interrogation  is  the  asking  of  questions,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  making  emphatic  the  reverse  of  what  is  asked ;  as, 
*'  How  then  comfort  ye  me  in  vain  ?" 

10.  Exclamation  is  the  expression  of  some  strong  emo- 
tion ;  as,  "  Oh  !  how  good  the  Lord  is  !" 

11.  Antithesis  is  placing  opposites  in  contrast,  for  the 
purpose  of  displaying  their  difference;  as,  '^A  ^o^se  son 
maketh  a  glad  father ;  but  a  foolish  son  is  the  heaviness  of 
his  mother." 

12.  Climax  is  the  arrangement  of  a  succession  of  particu- 
lars in  such  a  way  that  the  weakest  may  stand  first,  and  that 
each  may  rise  in  importance  and  make  a  deeper  impression 
than  the  one  preceding  it;  as,  "Add  to  your  faiihy  virtue ; 
and  to  virtue^  knowledge;  and  to  knowledge,  temperance; 
and  to  temperance,  J) atience  ;  and  to  patience,  godliiiess  ;  and 
to  godliness,  brotherly  kindness ;  and  to  brotherly  kindness, 
charityJ' 

13.  Apostrophe  is  turning  from  the  regular  course  of  the 
subject  to  an  address ;  as,  *'  Death  is  swallowed  up  in  victory. 
0  death,  where  is  thy  sting  V^ 

14.  Irony  is  expressing  the  opposite  of  what  is  intended 
to  be  understood ;  as,  "  What,  though  his  head  be  empty, 
provided  his  commonplace-book  be  full." 

15.  Paralipsis  is  the  pretended  concealment  of  what  one 
is  actually  telling ;  as,  "  I  do  not  speak  of  his  recklessness, 
extravagance,' '  etc. 

16.  Onomatopoeia  is  using  words  formed  to  imitate  sounds; 
as,  ^^Bow  wow,''  for  the  barking  of  a  dog. 


Questions.  —  What  is  Interrogation?    Exclamation?    Antithesis?    Climax? 
Apostrophe?    Irony?    Paralipsis?    Onomatopc&ia ? 


CAPITAL  LETTERS.  153 


CAPITAL   LETTERS 


1.  The  first  word  of  every  entire  sentence  should  begin 
with  a  capital ;  as,  "  He  comes." 

2.  Every  proper  name,  or  title  of  honor,  should  begin  with 
a  capital ;  as,  ^'  Mr.  Jones." 

3.  Names  of  Deity,  or  pronouns  referring  to  those  names, 
should  begin  with  capitals  ;  as,  ^^  God,  Our  Refuge." 

4.  The  first  word  of  every  line  of  poetry  should  begin 
with  a  capital. 

5.  The  words,  /and  0,  should  be  written  in  capitals. 

6.  Every  important  word  in  the  title  of  a  book,  or  essay, 
should  begin  with  a  capital;  as,  "Edwards  on  the  Will." 

7.  Adjectives  derived  from  proper  names  should  begin 
with  a  capital ;  as,  "  The  American  fleet." 

8.  When  objects  without  life  are  passionately  addressed  as 
if  they  had  life,  their  names  should  begin  with  capitals ;  as, 
"  Tell  me,  ye  Winds." 

9.  Important  historical  names  should  begin  with  capitals ; 
as,  '*  The  American  lie  volution." 

10.  The  first  word  of  a  direct  quotation  should  begin  with 
a  capital,  if  it  forms  complete  sense ;  as,  Mary  said,  *'  He 
will  go." 


154  ENGLISH   GRAMxMAR. 


PKOMISCUOUS    EXERCISES. 


When  I  look  upon  the  tombs  of  the  great,  every  emotion 
of  envy  dies  in  me ;  when  I  read  the  epitaphs  of  the  beauti- 
ful, every  inordinate  desire  goes  out;  when  I  meet  with  the 
grief  of  parents  upon  a  tombstone,  my  heart  melts  with  com- 
passion ;  when  I  see  the  tomb  of  the  parents  themselves,  I 
consider  the  vanity  of  grieving  for  those  whom  we  must 
quickly  follow. — Addison. 

A  minute  philosopher,  therefore,  that  would  act  a  consist- 
ent part,  should  have  the  diffidence,  the  modesty,  and  the 
timidity,  as  well  as  the  doubts  of  a  skeptic. — Berkley. 

Were  life  an  unbroken  summer  of  prosperity,  an  elysian 
field  full  of  shady  groves,  delectable  fruits,  singing  birds, 
and  never-failing  fountains ;  were  believers  not  called  to 
labors  and  trials,  sick-beds  and  separations ;  were  they  not 
beset  with  pitfalls  and  snares,  prowling  beasts  and  hissing 
serpents,  they  might  be  induced  to  make  this  world  the 
scene  of  their  content,  and  strive  to  build  their  immortality 
on  this  side  of  the  tomb. 

I  pity  bashful  men,  who  feel  the  pain 

Of  fancied  scorn  and  undeserved  disdain. 

And  bear  the  marks  upon  a  blushing  face 

Of  needless  shame  and  self-imposed  disgrace. 

Our  sensibilities  are  so  acute. 

The  fear  of  being  silent  makes  us  mute. — Oovtper. 


PROMISCUOUS     EXERCISES.  155 

Totally  occupied  with  this  new  species  of  existence,  I  had 
already  forgot  the  light,  though  the  first  part  of  my  being, 
which  I  recognized. 

We  may  rather  suppose  that  Nature  is  unlimited  in  her 
operations ;  that  she  has  inexhaustible  treasures  in  reserve ; 
that  knowledge  will  always  be  progressive ;  that  there  are 
innumerable  regions  of  imagination  yet  unexplored ;  and  that 
all  future  generations  will  continue  to  make  discoveries  of 
which  we  have  not  the  least  idea. 

Hold  your  peace,  let  me  alone,  that  I  may  speak,  and  let 
come  on  me  what  will. — Bible. 

If  I  wait,  the  grave  is  mine  house ;  I  have  made  my  bed 
in  the  darkness. — Bible. 

The  fear  of  the  Lord  is  to  hate  evil :  pride,  and  arrogancy, 
and  the  evil  way,  and  the  froward  mouth,  do  I  hate. — Bible. 

He  that  withholdeth  corn,  the  people  shall  curse  him  :  but 
blessing  shall  be  upon  the  head  of  him  that  selleth  it. — Bible. 

I  am  going  to  wade  the  stream  of  misery,  and  I  see  an 
inaccessible  bank  before  me  on  the  other  side ;  where  I  may 
find  it  accessible  I  do  not  yet  know. — John  Foster. 

There  is  eternity ;  you  have  lived  perhaps  thirty  years ; 
you  are  by  no  means  entitled  to  expect  so  much  more  life ; 
you  at  the  utmost  will  very  soon,  veri/  soon  die  !  What  fol- 
lows? Eternity!  a  boundless  region ;  inextinguishable  life; 
myriads  of  mighty  and  strange  spirits ;  vision  of  Grod  ;  glories, 
horrors. — Ibid. 

Indhposition  of  mankind  to  thinJc,  makes  the  world  a  vast 
dormitory  of  souls.  The  heaven-appointed  destiny  under 
which  they  are  placed,  seems  to  protect  them  from  reflection  ; 
there  is  an  opium  skj/  stretched  over  all  the  world,  which 
continually  rains  soporifics. — Ibid. 


1§6  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

How  could  you  estimate  so  meanly  your  mind,  witli  all  its 
capacities,  as  to  feel  no  regret  that  an  endless  series  of  trifles 
should  seize,  and  occupy  as  their  right,  all  your  thoughts, 
and  deny  them  both  the  liberty  and  the  ambition  of  going  on 
to  the  greatest  object?  How,  while  called  to  the  contempla- 
tions which  absorb  the  spirits  of  Heaven,  could  you  be  so 
patient  of  the  task  of  counting  the  flies  of  a  summer's  day  ? 
— John  Foster. 

The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day, 
The  lowing  herd  wind  slowly  o'er  the  lea; 

The  ploughman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way. 

And  leaves  the  world  to  darkness  and  to  me. — Gray. 

^'  Live  while  you  live,"  the  epicure  would  say, 

"And  seize  the  pleasures  of  the  present  day." 

"  Live  while  you  live,"  the  sacred  preacher  cries, 

"And  give  to  God  each  moment  as  it  flies." 

Lord,  in  my  views  let  both  united  be ; 

I  live  in  pleasure  when  I  live  to  thee. — Doddridge. 

Fierce,  hardy,  proud,  in  conscious  freedom  bold. 
Those  stormy  seats  the  warrior  Druses  hold ; 
From  Norman  blood  their  lofty  line  they  trace. 
Their  lion-courage  proves  their  generous  race. — Heber. 

— amid  them  stood  the  tree  of  life 
High  eminent,  blooming  ambrosial  fruit 
Of  vegetable  gold. — Milton. 

Futurity  is  the  greatness  of  man,  and  that  hereafter  is 
the  erand  scene  for  the  attainment  of  the  fulness  of  his 
existence.  When  depressed  and  mortified  by  a  conscious 
littleness  of  being,  yet  feeling  emotions  and  intimations  which 
seem  to  signify  that  he  should  not  be  little,  he  may  look  to 
futurity  and  exclaim,  "  I  shall  be  great  yonder  !"  When 
feeling  how  little  belongs  to  him,  how  diminutive  and  poor 


PROMISCUOUS   EXERCISES.  157 

his  sphere  of  possession  here,  he  may  say,  ^'The  immense 
futurity  is  mine  I"  Looking  at  man,  we  seem  to  see  a  vast 
collection  of  little  beginnings,  attempts,  failures — like  a  plan- 
tation on  a  bleak  and  blasted  heath.  And  the  progress  in 
■whatever  is  valuable  and  noble,  whether  in  individuals  or 
communities,  is  so  miserably  difficult  and  slow.  So  that  *'the 
perfectibility  of  man,''  in  the  sense  in  which  that  phrase  has 
been  employed,  stands  justly  ridiculed  as  one  of  the  follies 
of  philosophic  romance.  Then  how  delightful  it  is  to  see 
revelation  itself,  pronouncing  as  possible,  and  predicting  as 
to  come,  something  "perfect"  in  the  condition  of  man. — 
Foster. 

Art  is  long,  and  time  is  fleeting, 

And  our  hearts,  though  stout  and  brave, 

Still,  like  muffled  drums,  are  beating 

Funeral  marches  to  the  grave. — Longfellow. 

Life,  like  a  dome  of  many-colored  glass, 

Stains  the  white  radiance  of  eternity. — Shelley. 

The  blithe  birds  of  the  summer-tide  are  flown ; 

Cold,  motionless,  and  mute,  stands  all  the  wood, 

Save  as  the  restless  wind,  in  mournful  mood, 
Strays  through  the  tossing  limbs  with  saddest  moan. 
The  leaves  it  wooed  with  kisses,  overblown 

By  gusts,  capricious,  pitiless,  and  rude, 

Lie  dark  and  dead  amid  the  solitude; 
Where  through  it  waileth  desolate  and  lone. 
But  with  a  clearer  splendor  sunlight  streams 

Athwart  the  bare,  slim  branches  j  and  on  high 
Each  star,  in  Night's  rich  coronal  that  beams. 

Pours  down  intenscr  brilliance  on  the  eye; 
Till  dazzled  Fancy  finds  her  gorgeous  dreams 

Outshone  in  beauty  by  the  autumn  sky  ! — Pike. 


158  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Trne  wit  is  nature  to  advantage  dressed  j 

What  oft  was  thought,  but  ne'er  so  well  expressed. 

Whoever  thinks  a  faultless  piece  to  see, 
Thinks  what  ne'er  was,  nor  is,  nor  e'er  shall  be. 

The  goddess  heard,  and  bade  the  muses  raise 
The  golden  trumpet  of  eternal  praise : 
From  pole  to  pole  the  winds  diffuse  the  sound 
That  fills  the  circuit  of  the  world  around. 

Then  the  shrouds  drop ) 
The  downy  feather,  on  the  cordage  hung, 
Moves  not :  the  flat  sea  shines  like  yellow  gold 
Fused  in  the  fire,  or  like  the  marble  floor 

Of  some  old  temple  wide. 

Avarice,  one  great  blight  of  happiness,  entering  the  sacred 
precincts  of  the  soul,  devastates  its  beauties ;  and,  alas  !  my 
friends,  it  too  often  saps  the  foundations  of  virtue,  which  is 
the  greatest  ornament  of  character ;  and,  the  noblest  impulses 
of  the  soul  having  been  paralyzed,  the  seekers  of  pleasure, 
cheated  as  to  the  real  object  of  life,  and  wishing  to  grasp 
some  supposed  good,  experience  naught  but  pain  and  shame. 

Note. — The  above  sentence  contains  an  example  of  every  rule  of  Syntax. 

"/  can^tj'  is  the  watchword  of  the  weak  and  timid ;  ^^I 
can,  I  willj'  that  of  the  strong  and  brave.  Better  aim  high, 
and  fall  below  the  mark,  than  have  no  aim  at  all. 

The  Southern  States  seceded  from  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment. '^  Had  they  the  right  to  do  this  ?"  is  a  question 
of  no  little  importance.  To  answer  this  question  properly, 
we  must  look  to  the  obligations  which  bound  them  to  the 
Union.  The  Constitution,  adopted  by  the  States,  was  the 
only  basis  of  union  between  the  States.  It  is  evident,  there- 
fore, that  upon  the  observance  of  the  Constitution  by  all  those 
States  that  had  agreed  to  live  together  under  it,  rested  the 


PROMISCUOUS    EXERCISES.  159 

entire  obligation  of  any  State  to  remain  in  the  Union. 
Nearly  all  the  Northern  States  A^iolated  the  plain  letter  of  the 
Constitution  in  their  efforts  to  abolish  or  circumscribe  slavery; 
for  the  Constitution,  which  the  States  all  agreed  to  live  under, 
was  a  slave  Constitution.  The  North  refused  to  abide  by 
this  Constitution.  They  violated  their  solemn  pledge,  and 
used  their  efforts  to  destroy  our  property.  Was  it  wrong  for 
us  to  separate  from  a  people  who  would  not  regard  their  obli- 
gations to  us  ?  who  were  using  their  utmost  energies  to  destroy 
our  equality y  ovlTl  property,  our  respectability,  and  take  upon 
themselves  the  management  of  our  own  property,  and  thus 
make  us  their  slaves?'  No  sane  man,  unbiased  by  prejudice, 
can  say  that  it  was.  Our  obligations,  legal  and  moral,  to 
live  with  them,  ceased  when  they  departed  from  the  Consti- 
tution. Secession,  or  ignominious  submission,  was  our  only 
remedy.     The  States  that  seceded,  therefore,  did  rigJit. 

Jeff.  Davis,  the  first  President  of  the  Southern  Confede- 
racy, at  once  the  model  statesman  and  distinguished  warrior, 
has  so  acted  as  to  endear  himself  to  every  true  patriot  of  the 
South.     He  is  the  pride  of  his  friends,  the  terror  of  his  foes. 

"  Truth,  crushed  to  earth,  will  rise  again — 
The  eternal  years  of  God  are  hers ; 
But  error,  wounded,  writhes  in  pain, 
And  dies  amid  her  worshippers.'' 

He  who  spends  all  his  time  in  decorating  his  body,  shows 
how  little  he  cares  for  his  soul. 

Life  is  worse  than  lost,  if  it  is  not  spent  in  preparing  to 
die. 


